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The Rise of Scientific Engineering in Britain

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 January 2009

R. A. Buchanan
R. A. Buchanan
Affiliation:
Centre for the History of Technology, Science and Society, University of BathBA2 7AY
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Information
The British Journal for the History of Science , Volume 18 , Issue 2 , July 1985 , pp. 218 - 233
Copyright
Copyright © British Society for the History of Science 1985

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References

1 The best general survey is Cardwell, D. S. L.: The organisation of science in England, 1957Google Scholar. See also Ashby, E.: Technology and the Academics, 1958Google Scholar; Argles, M.: South Kensington to RobbinsGoogle Scholar; and Sanderson, M.: The Universities and British Industry 1850–1970, 1972Google Scholar. Armytage, W. H. G.: A Social History of Engineering, 1961Google Scholar, reviews the development of engineering in a broad social context, with perceptive observations on educational aspects but no detailed treatment.

2 This process of growth is discussed in Buchanan, R. A.: ‘Institutional proliferation in the British engineering profession, 1847–1914’ Econ. Hist. Review 2nd series, vol. 38. no. 1, 02 1985, pp. 42–60.Google Scholar

3 Porter, Whitworth: History of the Corps of Royal Engineers, 1889, 2 volsGoogle Scholar: vol. 2, chap IV—‘The School of Military Engineering’. The college was established in 1812 (p. 72). The first Director was (Sir) Charles Pasley, R.E., who subsequently became involved in civil engineering as an inspector of railways. Several other military engineers made this transition, but they remained a very small minority in the growing profession, and most of the early inspectors were trained at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, which had been founded in 1741.

4 Very few British engineers were trained overseas, apart from immigrants such as (Sir) Marc Brunel, who sent his son I. K. Brunel to France to complete his engineering education: see Buchanan, R. A.: ‘Science and Engineering: a case study in British experience in the mid-nineteenth century’, in Notes and Records of the Royal Sodely of London, vol. 32, no. 2, 03 1978, pp. 215–223CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Lewis Gordon, C.E., the first professor of engineering at Glasgow University, was trained at Freiberg, Saxony, but few of his contemporaries had similar experience.

5 Skempton, A. W. (ed.): John Smeaton F.R.S., 1981Google Scholar; especially chap. II, by Smith, Norman, ‘Scientific Work’ (pp. 35–57).Google Scholar

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8 W. Smith made many important geological observations while working as engineer to the Somerset Coal Canal and as a surveyor in the North Somerset Coalfield. See Eyles, Joan M.: ‘William Smith: some aspects of his life and work’, in Schneer, Cecil J. (ed.): Toward a history of geology, Cambridge, Mass., 1969, pp. 142–158.Google Scholar

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11 See Buchanan, R. A.: ‘Science and Engineering …’Google Scholar, note 4 above.

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16 There is a detailed account of these experiments in Rosenberg, Nathan and Vincenti, Walter G.: The Britannia Bridge: the generation and diffusion of technological knowledge, Cambridge Mass., 1978Google Scholar. See also Pole, William (ed.): The Life of Sir William Fairbairn, Bart., 1877, reprinted Newton Abbot 1970, p. 201 etc.Google Scholar

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18 Emmerson, George S.: John Scott Russell, p. 182Google Scholar, refers to this work as ‘a Great Eastern of books’. Russell also became an enthusiastic advocate for the creation of the Royal School of Naval Architecture.

19 There is no full biographical treatment of William Froude, but see the DNB article for an outline of his career. See also The Papers of William Froude MA LLD FRS 1810–1879, Inst. of Naval Architects, London, 1955.Google Scholar

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27 But its place was largely taken in North East England by the College of Physical Science founded at Newcastle in 1871. This was the result of close collaboration with the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, which even shared the same registrar for some years: see Bettenson, E. M.: The University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle 1971.Google Scholar

28 Glasgow University Archives: copy letter P/CN/Macfarlan 469/470.

29 This is indicated by correspondence between the Principal and the Lord Advocate: see Glasgow University Archives, P/CN/Macfarlan 474 (8 Dec 1840) and 479.

30 Small, James: ‘Glasgow University's contribution to engineering progress’, in Glasgow University Engineering Society Year Book, 1954, p. 27.Google Scholar

31 Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, vol. 25, 1865–1866, pp. 203–228, especially pp. 219–223.Google Scholar

32 Engineering, 2 02 1866, p. 79.Google Scholar

33 This national anxiety is examined by Ashby, E.: Technology and the Academics, 1959Google Scholar: see his Appendix giving Lyon Playfair's letter of 7 June 1867 to Lord Taunton regarding the poor performance of Great Britain at the Paris Exhibition of 1867 (pp. 111–3). See also Emmerson, George S.: Engineering Education—a Social History, Newton Abbot, 1973.Google Scholar

34 The education and status of civil engineers, in the United Kingdom and in Foreign Countries: Report by the Institution of Civil Engineers, 1870, pp. viii–ix.Google Scholar

35 See Small, James: ‘Glasgow University's contribution …’Google Scholar, note 30 above.

36 Channell, David F.: ‘The harmony of theory and practice: the engineering science of W. J. M. Rankine’, in Technology and Culture, vol. 23, no. 1, 01 1982, pp. 39–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

37 Sutherland, Hugh B.: Rankine—His Life and Times, Rankine Centenary Lecture, Institution of Civil Engineers, 1972, p. 11.Google Scholar

38 Glasgow University Archives CIVA 36407—Report of 29 April 1862, and Documents GS—4600, give details of petitions and correspondence regarding a ‘Certificate of Proficiency’ in Engineering and the request for a Degree in the subject. See also Mackie, J. D.: The University of Glasgow 1451–1951, Glasgow, 1954.Google Scholar

39 Channell, David F.: ‘The harmony of theory and practice …’, note 36 aboveGoogle Scholar. See also the same author's essay: ‘Rankine, Aristotle and Potential Energy’ in The Philosophical Journal—Transactions of the Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow, vol. 14 no. 2, 1978, pp. 111–114.Google Scholar

40 Transactions of the Institution of Engineers in Scotland, vol. 1, p. 3 et seq, 1857.Google Scholar

41 See Kargon, R. H.: Science in Victorian Manchester: Enterprise and Expertise, Manchester 1977, especially Chap. 5Google Scholar. Also Thompson, J.: The Owens College, its foundation and growth, Manchester 1886.Google Scholar

42 See Lea, F. C.: Sir Joseph Whitworth—a pioneer of mechanical engineering, 1946Google Scholar. Whitworth scholarships were established in 1868 with an annual grant of £3,000, initially intended to provide thirty £100 scholarships a year.

43 Kargon, R. H., Science in Victorian Manchester, p. 184.Google Scholar

44 Ibid. p. 188. Simultaneous developments occurred in the Physics Department at Owens College, which promoted a course in electrical engineering.

45 The term was used in the Spectator, as quoted by Neve, M. in TLS 21 07 1978, p. 879.Google Scholar

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49 Hearnshaw, F. J. C.: Centenary History of King's College London, 1929Google Scholar; Huelin, G.: King's College London 1828–1978, 1978.Google Scholar

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52 The Japanese connection provides an interesting illustration of the international status of British engineers in the nineteenth century: see Armytage, W. H. G., Social History …, p. 233Google Scholar; and Brock, W. H., ‘The Japanese Connexion: engineering in Tokyo, London, and Glasgow at the end of the nineteenth century’, in British Journal for the History of Science, vol. 14, pt. 3, no. 48, 11 1981, pp. 227–243CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Another educational institution which can be regarded as a London enterprise and had connections overseas was Coopers Hill College, founded near Runneymede in 1870 as the Royal Indian Engineering College. It closed in 1906. See Cameron, J. G. P.: A Short History of the Royal Indian Engineering College Coopers Hill, published for private circulation, 1960.Google Scholar

53 See Armytage, W. H. G.: Civic Universities, 1955Google Scholar: also Gosden, P. H. J. H. and Taylor, A. J.: Studies in the history of a university 1874–1974, Leeds, 1975Google Scholar; Dumbell, S.: The University of Liverpool 1903–53, Liverpool, 1953Google Scholar; Chapman, A. W.: The Story of a Modern University, Oxford 1955Google Scholar; Vincent, E. W. and Hinton, P.: The University of Birmingham: its history and significance, Birmingham 1947Google Scholar; Wood, A. C.: The History of University College Nottingham, Oxford 1953Google Scholar; Bettenson, E. M.: The University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle 1971Google Scholar; Buchanan, R. A.: ‘From Trade School to University’, in Walters, Gerald (ed.): A Technological University—an experiment in Bath, Bath, 1966, pp. 12–26Google Scholar; and Patterson, A. T.: The University of Southampton, Southampton 1962.Google Scholar

54 Dumbell, S.: The University of Liverpool 1903–53, Liverpool 1953Google Scholar; the chair in naval architecture was founded in 1903.

55 Supported by the Institution of Gas Engineers. See Shimmin, A. N.: The University of Leeds, Cambridge, 1954.Google Scholar

56 This was the first English chair in mining: the first incumbent was J. H. Merivale. See Whiting, C. E.: The University of Durham, 1932, p. 197.Google Scholar

57 Patterson, A. T.: The University of Southampton, Southampton, 1962.Google Scholar

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60 Buchanan, R. A.: ‘From Trade School to University’, in Walters, Gerald (ed.): A Technological University—an experiment in Bath, Bath 1966, pp. 12–26Google Scholar; see also Cottle, B. and Sherborne, J. W.: The Life of a University, Bristol, 1967.Google Scholar

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63 Ibid., p. 45. See also Hilken, T. J. N.: Engineering at Cambridge University 1783–1965, Cambridge 1967.Google Scholar

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65 Literally, a certificate that one has passed an examination. For the introduction of the ‘Testamur’ examination, see Parr, P., Presidential Address, 1954, Proc. Institution of Municipal Engineers, vol. 81, 1954–1955, 5.Google Scholar

66 Institution of Civil Engineers, Minutes of Proceedings, vol. 178Google Scholar: Report of Special Committee on Practical Training, pp. 228–238 and an Appendix pp. 247–253. See also vol. 186, pp. 406–421 for Report on Conference on Education and Training of Engineers, 1911.

67 Walker, E. G.: The Life and Work of William Crawthorne Unwin, 1947, p. 147Google Scholar: From a speech at a distribution of prizes at the Merchant Venturers Technical College, Bristol, in 1912.

68 Whiting, C. E.: The University of Durham, 1932, p. 81.Google Scholar

69 Estimates of numbers of engineers undergoing training in this period vary according to the basis of selection. Argles: South Kensington to Robbins …, reckons that there were 1,487 full-time students of engineering and technology in England and Wales in 1912–13; Sanderson: The Universities …, gives a figure of 1,433 students of engineering for British universities (including a substantial Scottish contribution) in 1892. Figures for numbers of students in 1913 are provided in Reports from University Colleges 1913–14 as reproduced in Sanderson, M. (ed.): The Universities in the nineteenth century, 1975, pp. 243–4.Google Scholar