The aim of the present study was to examine the association between maternal Hb levels during pregnancy and educational achievement of the offspring in later life. We analysed data obtained from the Northern Finnish Birth Cohort Study conducted in 1966, in which, data on mothers and offspring from pregnancy through to the age of 31 years were collected. The cohort comprised 11 656 individuals born from singleton births (51 % males and 49 % females). Maternal Hb levels were available from the third, seventh and ninth gestational months. Educational achievement was measured as school scores (range 4–10) taken at the ages of 14 (self-reported questionnaires) and 16 (school reports) years as well as the highest level of education at the age of 31 years. The present results showed a direct positive association between Hb levels and educational achievement in later life. After adjustment for sex, birth weight, birth month and a wide range of maternal factors (parity, smoking, mental status, whether pregnancy was wanted or not, education, social class and marital status), only maternal Hb levels that were measured at the ninth month were significantly associated with the offspring's school performance. If the levels were ≥ 110 g/l at all the three measurement points, offspring not only had better school scores at the ages of 14 and 16 years (β = 0·048, P = 0·04 and β = 0·68, P = 0·007, respectively), but also had an increased odds of having a higher level of education at the age of 31 years (OR = 1·14, P = 0·04). The present study suggests that low maternal Hb levels at the final stages of pregnancy are linked to the poorer educational achievement of the offspring. If our observation is confirmed, it would suggest that Fe prophylaxis even at fairly late stages of pregnancy may be beneficial for the subsequent health of the offspring. However, more studies are needed to fully establish the potential pathways and the clinical importance of the present findings.

Diet is important in the prevention of CVD, and it has been suggested that a diet high in MUFA is more cardioprotective than a low-fat diet. We hypothesised that the thrombotic risk profile is improved most favourably by a high-MUFA diet compared with a low-fat diet. This was tested in a parallel randomised intervention trial on overweight individuals (aged 28·2 (sd 4·6) years) randomly assigned to a diet providing a moderate amount of fat (35–45 % of energy; >20 % of fat as MUFA) (MUFA diet; n 39), to a low-fat (LF; 20–30 % of energy) diet (n 43), or to a control diet (35 % of energy as fat; n 24) for 6 months after a weight loss of about 10 %. Protein constituted 10–20 % of energy in all three diets. All foods were provided free of charge from a purpose-built supermarket. Fasting blood samples were collected before and after intervention and analysed for factor VII coagulant activity (FVII:c), fibrinogen, prothrombin fragment 1+2 (F1+2), D-dimer and plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI). The fibrinogen concentration was significantly lowered by the LF diet, but not by the MUFA diet. Changes in fibrinogen differed significantly between diet groups. BMI and PAI concentration increased and D-dimer concentrations were reduced irrespective of the diets. No changes were observed for FVII:c and F1+2. Our findings suggest that in overweight subjects after weight loss the thrombotic risk profile is improved most favourably by the LF diet compared with the MUFA diet based on the reduction in fibrinogen concentrations.

It is expected that a dietary intervention based on the traditional Mediterranean food pattern should be associated with a reduction in fast-food consumption but this has never been tested before. We assessed the impact of a 12-week dietary intervention, promoting the adoption of a Mediterranean food pattern, on fast-food consumption among seventy-one healthy women aged between 30 and 65 years. The dietary intervention consisted of two group sessions and seven individual sessions with a dietitian. To determine the Mediterranean dietary score (MedScore) and fast-food consumption, an FFQ was administered. During the 12-week intervention, the MedScore significantly increased (from 21·1 (sd 3·6) units at baseline to 28·6 (sd 4·4) units at week 12, P < 0·0001), while the fast-food consumption significantly decreased (from 51·7 (sd 46·4) g/d at baseline to 20·5 (sd 18·2) g/d at week 12, P < 0·0001). Moreover, women who had a higher consumption of fast food at baseline decreased their fast-food consumption to the most (r − 0·50, P < 0·0001). When four subgroups were formed on the basis of median values of Medscore and fast-food consumption changes, it was found that only the subgroup of women which increased the most their MedScore and decreased the most their fast-food consumption experienced a significant decrease in BMI (P < 0·01). In conclusion, a dietary intervention promoting the Mediterranean food pattern led to a decrease in fast-food consumption among healthy women even if it was not a specific target of the intervention. Dietary strategies for increasing intake of healthy foods may be a useful approach for decreasing intake of less healthy foods.

Due to little outdoor activity and low dietary intake of vitamin D (VD), Bangladeshi low-income women are at risk for osteoporosis at an early age. The present study assessed the effect of VD, Ca and multiple micronutrient supplementation on VD and bone status in Bangladeshi young female garment factory workers. This placebo-controlled 1-year intervention randomly assigned 200 apparently healthy subjects (aged 16–36 years) to four groups: VD group, daily 10 μg VD; VD and Ca (VD-Ca) group, daily 10 μg VD+600 mg Ca; multiple micronutrient and Ca (MMN-Ca) group, 10 μg VD and other micronutrients+600 mg Ca; a placebo group. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (S-25OHD), intact parathyroid hormone (S-iPTH), Ca, phosphate and alkaline phosphatase were measured. Bone mineral density and bone mineral content were measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. All measurements were made at baseline and at 12 months. Significantly (P < 0·001) higher S-25OHD concentrations were observed in the supplemented groups than in the placebo group after the intervention. Supplementation had an effect (P < 0·001) on S-iPTH in the VD-Ca and MMN-Ca groups compared with the placebo group. Bone mineral augmentation increased at the femur in the supplemented groups. Supplementation with VD-Ca should be recommended as a strategic option to reduce the risk of osteomalacia and osteoporosis in these subjects. MMN-Ca may have analogous positive health implications with additional non-skeletal benefits.

Both intra-uterine and early childhood development contribute to the risk of developing CVD in adult life. We therefore evaluated the maternal, placental, fetal, birth, infant and childhood determinants of cardiovascular risk in a cohort of Afro-Jamaican children. The Vulnerable Windows Cohort is a longitudinal survey of 569 mothers and their offspring recruited from the first trimester. The offspring's anthropometry was measured at birth, at 6 weeks, every 3 months to 1 year and then every 6 months. At mean age 11·5 years, fasting blood was sampled for glucose, insulin and lipids. Analyses were confined to 296 women and their offspring who had complete data. Waist circumference (WC) was related to maternal weight and BMI, placental weight and to the size of the offspring in utero, at birth and the rate of growth in childhood (P < 0·05). Total cholesterol, TAG and glucose concentrations were unrelated to maternal, placental, fetal, neonatal and childhood measurements. Fasting insulin and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance were related to maternal weight and BMI (P < 0·05), but not after adjusting for WC. HDL-cholesterol was inversely related to placental and birth weight, and inversely related to weight and BMI throughout childhood (P < 0·001), but not after adjusting for WC. Systolic blood pressure was directly related to maternal weight, child's height, weight and BMI (P < 0·05), but not after adjustment for WC. Systolic blood pressure and fasting glucose concentration were inversely related to birth weight in boys but directly associated in girls. We concluded that maternal anthropometry during pregnancy, fetal size, and childhood growth rate contribute to cardiovascular risk factors in childhood.

Factors controlling the concentration of resistant starch (RS) in foods are of considerable interest on account of the potential for this type of fibre to deliver health benefits to consumers. The present study was aimed at establishing changes in starch granule morphology as a result of human small-intestinal digestion. Volunteers with ileostomy consumed six selected foods: breakfast cereal (muesli), white bread, oven-baked French fries, canned mixed beans and a custard containing either a low-amylose maize starch (LAMS) or a high-amylose maize starch (HAMS). Analysis showed that digesta total RS (as a fraction of ingested starch) was: muesli, 8·9 %; bread, 4·8 %; fries, 4·2 %; bean mix, 35·9 %; LAMS custard, 4·0 %; HAMS custard, 29·1 %. Chromatographic analysis showed that undigested food contained three major starch fractions. These had average molecular weights (MW) of 43 500 kDa, 420 kDa and 8·5 kDa and were rich in amylopectin, higher-MW amylose and low-MW amylose, respectively. The low-MW amylose fraction became enriched preferentially in the stomal effluent while the medium-MW starch fraction showed the greatest loss. Fourier transform IR spectroscopy showed that absorbance at 1022 per cm decreased after digestion while the absorbance band at 1047 per cm became greater. Such changes have been suggested to indicate shifts from less ordered to more ordered granule structures. Further analysis of amylose composition by scanning iodine spectra indicated that the MW of amylose in ileal digesta was lower than that of undigested amylose. It appears that high-MW amylose is preferentially digested and that MW, rather than amylose content alone, is associated with resistance of starch to digestion in the upper gut of humans.

Practical values to guide food choices for control of postprandial glycaemia need to refer to entire foods in amounts customarily consumed. We tested an in vitro method for determining the relative glycaemic impact (RGI) of customarily consumed portions of foods. Sugars released during in vitro pancreatic digestion of eighty-three foods were measured as glucose equivalents (GE) per gram of food, adjusted by the glycaemic indexes of the sugars to obtain glycaemic GE (GGE) per gram and multiplied by food portion weight to obtain the GGE contribution of the food portion, its RGI. The results were compared with clinical GGE values from subjects who consumed the same food amounts. In vitro and in vivo GGE values were significantly correlated, but the slope of the regression equation was significantly less than one, meaning in vitro GGE values overestimated in vivo GGE values. Bland–Altman method comparison showed the in vitro–in vivo disparity to increase as mean GGE increased, suggesting the need to allow for different rates of homeostatic blood glucose disposal (GD) due to different GGE doses in the customarily consumed food portions. After GD correction, Bland–Altman method comparison showed that the bias in predicting in vivo GGE values from in vitro GGE values was almost completely removed (y = 0·071x − 0·89; R2 0·01). We conclude that in vitro food values for use in managing the glycaemic impact of customarily consumed food quantities require correction for blood GD that is dependent on the GGE content of the food portions involved.

Fruits and vegetables are among the most nutritious and healthy of foods, and are related to the prevention of many chronic diseases. The aim of the study was to examine the relationship between intake of different plant foods and cognitive performance in elderly individuals in a cross-sectional study. Two thousand and thirty-one elderly subjects (aged 70–74 years; 55 % women) recruited from the general population in Western Norway underwent extensive cognitive testing and completed a comprehensive FFQ. The cognitive test battery covered several domains (Kendrick Object Learning Test, Trail Making Test – part A, modified versions of the Digit Symbol Test, Block Design, Mini-Mental State Examination and Controlled Oral Word Association Test). A validated and self-reported FFQ was used to assess habitual food intake. Subjects with intakes of>10th percentile of fruits, vegetables, grain products and mushrooms performed significantly better in cognitive tests than those with very low or no intake. The associations were strongest between cognition and the combined intake of fruits and vegetables, with a marked dose-dependent relationship up to about 500 g/d. The dose-related increase of intakes of grain products and potatoes reached a plateau at about 100–150 g/d, levelling off or decreasing thereafter, whereas the associations were linear for mushrooms. For individual plant foods, the positive cognitive associations of carrots, cruciferous vegetables, citrus fruits and high-fibre bread were most pronounced. The only negative cognitive association was with increased intake of white bread. In the elderly, a diet rich in plant foods is associated with better performance in several cognitive abilities in a dose-dependent manner.

Clinical research shows that nutritional intervention is necessary to prevent malnutrition in head and neck cancer patients undergoing radiotherapy. The objective of the present study was to assess the value of individually adjusted counselling by a dietitian compared to standard nutritional care (SC). A prospective study, conducted between 2005 and 2007, compared individual dietary counselling (IDC, optimal energy and protein requirement) to SC by an oncology nurse (standard nutritional counselling). Endpoints were weight loss, BMI and malnutrition (5 % weight loss/month) before, during and after the treatment. Thirty-eight patients were included evenly distributed over two groups. A significant decrease in weight loss was found 2 months after the treatment (P = 0·03) for IDC compared with SC. Malnutrition in patients with IDC decreased over time, while malnutrition increased in patients with SC (P = 0·02). Therefore, early and intensive individualised dietary counselling by a dietitian produces clinically relevant effects in terms of decreasing weight loss and malnutrition compared with SC in patients with head and neck cancer undergoing radiotherapy.

Bioelectrical impedance vector analysis (BIVA) is a new method that is used for the routine monitoring of the variation in body fluids and nutritional status with assumptions regarding body composition values. The aim of the present study was to determine bivariate tolerance intervals of the whole-body impedance vector and to describe phase angle (PA) values for healthy term newborns aged 7–28 d. This descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted on healthy term neonates born at a low-risk public maternity. General and anthropometric neonatal data and bioelectrical impedance data (800 μA–50 kHz) were obtained. Bivariate vector analysis was conducted with the resistance–reactance (RXc) graph method. The BIVA software was used to construct the graphs. The study was conducted on 109 neonates (52·3 % females) who were born at term, adequate for gestational age, exclusively breast-fed and aged 13 (sd 3·6) d. We constructed one standard, reference, RXc-score graph and RXc-tolerance ellipses (50, 75 and 95 %) that can be used with any analyser. Mean PA was 3·14 (sd 0·43)° (3·12 (sd 0·39)° for males and 3·17 (sd 0·48)° for females). Considering the overlapping of ellipses of males and females with the general distribution, a graph for newborns aged 7–28 d with the same reference tolerance ellipse was defined for boys and girls. The results differ from those reported in the literature probably, in part, due to the ethnic differences in body composition. BIVA and PA permit an assessment without the need to know body weight and the prediction error of conventional impedance formulas.

Little is known about the bioavailability of isoflavones in children. Previous studies have shown that children excrete more isoflavone in urine compared with adults. Thus we examined the relationship between usual dietary isoflavone intake and the urinary excretion of isoflavonoids in Korean girls of pubertal age. Twelve girls each were selected from the lowest and the highest quartiles of isoflavone intake among 252 Korean girls aged 8–11 years. Age, BMI and sexual maturation stage were matched between the two groups. Dietary intakes for 3 d by diet record and overnight urine samples were collected at baseline and at 6 and 12 months. Total and individual isoflavone (daidzein, genistein and glycitein) intakes were calculated from diet records. The parent isoflavone compounds (daidzein, genistein and glycitein) and their metabolites (equol, O-desmethylangolensin (O-DMA), dihydrodaidzein and dihydrogenistein) present in the urine samples were analysed using liquid chromatography–MS. Intake levels of total and individual isoflavone compounds were significantly higher in the high isoflavone (HI) group than the levels in the low isoflavone (LI) group (P < 0·05). Urinary excretion of all isoflavone parent compounds was significantly higher in the HI group than in the LI group (P < 0·0001). Among isoflavone metabolites, only O-DMA and total metabolites were significantly different (P < 0·05). Total isoflavone intake was highly correlated with the urinary excretion of total parent compounds (r 0·68; P < 0·01), parent compounds plus their metabolites (r 0·66–0·69; P < 0·01) and total isoflavonoids (r 0·72; P < 0·0001). In conclusion, overnight urinary excretion of total isoflavonoids is a reliable biomarker of usual isoflavone intake in Korean girls of pubertal age.

Low dietary Ca intake and vitamin D insufficiency have been implicated as part of the aetiology leading to osteoporosis. The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of a 30-month dietary intervention that combined supplementation of dairy products fortified with Ca and vitamin D3 and lifestyle and nutrition counselling sessions on bone mineral density (BMD) of postmenopausal women. Sixty-six postmenopausal women (aged 55–65 years) were randomised into a dietary group (DG; n 35), receiving daily and for the first 12 months 1200 mg Ca and 7·5 μg vitamin D3, while for the next 18 months of intervention 1200 mg Ca and 22·5 μg vitamin D3 through fortified dairy products, and a control group (CG; n 31) receiving neither counselling nor dairy products. The DG was found to have more favourable changes in arms (P < 0·001), total spine (P = 0·001) and total body BMD (P < 0·001) compared with the CG. Furthermore, a significant increase was observed for the DG in lumbar spine BMD (0·056; 95 % CI 0·009, 0·103), which was not found to differentiate significantly compared with the change observed in the CG (P = 0·075). In conclusion, the present study showed that intakes of vitamin D of about 22·5 μg/d and of Ca close to the recommended level of 1200 mg from fortified dairy foods for 30 months, with compliance ensured by lifestyle and nutrition counselling sessions, can induce favourable changes in arms, total spine and total body BMD of postmenopausal women.

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of a paediatric tube feed supplemented with a multifibre mixture on the gut microbiota and nutritional and micronutrient status of children on long-term enteral nutrition (EN). A randomised, controlled, double-blind, cross-over trial (2 × 3 months) with a washout period of 1 month was carried out. Twenty-seven children (80 % neurologically impaired) aged 11·9 (sd 3·9) years, on long-term EN (4·8 (sd 3·9) years) were recruited. The analyses of the children's faecal pH, microbiota along with anthropometric measures, bowel movements and markers of blood micronutrient status were made. Twenty children completed the study. A significant increase in the proportion of stool bifidobacteria (+16·6 %, P < 0·05) was observed during the multifibre period than during the fibre-free period, together with a significant reduction in stool pH (P < 0·001). Stool frequency and consistency as well as growth did not differ between the two periods. There was a significant increase (P < 0·05) in plasma ferritin at the end of the fibre-free period, but plasma ferritin levels remained within normal ranges during both periods. No diet effects on other blood parameters were observed. In conclusion, addition of a multifibre mixture with prebiotic components to paediatric EN is well tolerated, promotes bifidobacteria and reduces stool pH, indicating an improved gut health.

Peanuts and peanut butter are commonly consumed as a snack, meal component and ingredient in various commercial products. Their consumption is associated with reduced CVD risk and they pose little threat to positive energy balance. However, questions have arisen as to whether product form (e.g. whole nut v. butter) and processing properties (e.g. roasting and adding flavours) may compromise their positive health effects. The present study investigated the effects of peanut form and processing on two CVD risk factors: fasting plasma lipids and body weight. One hundred and eighteen adults (forty-seven males and seventy-one females; age 29·2 (sd 8·4) years; BMI 30·0 (sd 4·5) kg/m2) from Brazil, Ghana and the United States were randomised to consume 56 g of raw unsalted (n 23), roasted unsalted (n 24), roasted salted (n 23) or honey roasted (n 24) peanuts, or peanut butter (n 24) daily for 4 weeks. Peanut form and processing did not differentially affect body weight or fasting plasma lipid responses in the total sample. However, HDL-cholesterol increased significantly at the group level, and total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol and TAG concentrations decreased significantly in individuals classified as having elevated fasting plasma lipids compared with those with normal fasting plasma lipids. These observations suggest that the processing attributes assessed in this trial do not compromise the lipid-lowering effects of peanuts, and do not negatively impact body weight. Further studies are warranted to determine the effects of form and processing on other health risk factors.

The relationship between dietary Zn intake and the risk of atherosclerosis remains unclear, and no epidemiological studies have been reported on the effects of dietary Zn intake on morphological changes in the vascular wall. We examined the relationship between dietary Zn intake and common carotid intima-media thickness (IMT) as a marker of subclinical atherosclerosis among the middle-aged and elderly populations. A cross-sectional analysis of a prospective cohort baseline study was performed with 4564 adults aged 40–89 years and free of clinical CVD. Dietary data were collected by trained interviewers using an FFQ. Common carotid IMT was measured using a B-mode ultrasound imaging technique. Subclinical atherosclerosis was determined using carotid IMT, and defined as >80th percentile of carotid IMT or ≥ 1 mm of carotid IMT. After adjustment for potential confounders, the mean carotid IMT in the low Zn intake group was higher than that in the high Zn intake group. When subclinical atherosclerosis was defined as >80th percentile value of IMT or ≥ 1 mm of carotid IMT, after adjustment for potential confounders, Zn intake was inversely related to subclinical atherosclerosis (5th v. 1st quintile, OR 0·64, 95 % CI 0·45, 0·90, P for trend = 0·069; 5th v. 1st quintile, OR 0·34, 95 % CI 0·16, 0·70, P for trend = 0·005, respectively). In persons free of clinical CVD, dietary Zn intake was inversely correlated with subclinical atherosclerosis. The present findings suggest a putative protective role of dietary Zn intake against the development of atherosclerosis.

According to animal studies, intake of probiotic bacteria may improve glucose homeostasis. We hypothesised that probiotic bacteria improve insulin sensitivity by attenuating systemic inflammation. Therefore, the effects of oral supplementation with the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus acidophilus NCFM on insulin sensitivity and the inflammatory response were investigated in subjects with normal or impaired insulin sensitivity. In a double-blinded, randomised fashion, forty-five males with type 2 diabetes, impaired or normal glucose tolerance were enrolled and allocated to a 4-week treatment course with either L. acidophilus NCFM or placebo. L. acidophilus was detected in stool samples by denaturating gradient gel electrophoresis and real-time PCR. Separated by the 4-week intervention period, two hyperinsulinaemic–euglycaemic clamps were performed to estimate insulin sensitivity. Furthermore, the systemic inflammatory response was evaluated by subjecting the participants to Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide injection (0·3 ng/kg) before and after the treatment course. L. acidophilus NCFM was detected in 75 % of the faecal samples after treatment with the probiotic bacterium. Insulin sensitivity was preserved among volunteers in the L. acidophilus NCFM group, whereas it decreased in the placebo group. Both baseline inflammatory markers and the systemic inflammatory response were, however, unaffected by the intervention. In conclusion, intake of L. acidophilus NCFM for 4 weeks preserved insulin sensitivity compared with placebo, but did not affect the systemic inflammatory response.

The health benefits currently associated with increased dairy intake may be attributable to the whey component of dairy proteins. The present study evaluated the effects of whey protein supplementation on body composition, lipids, insulin and glucose in comparison to casein and glucose (control) supplementation in overweight/obese individuals for 12 weeks. The subjects were randomised to whey protein, casein or glucose supplementation for 12 weeks according to a parallel design. Fasting blood samples and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry measurements were taken. Seventy men and women with a mean age of 48·4 (sem 0·86) years and a mean BMI of 31·3 (sem 0·8) kg/m2 completed the study. Subjects supplemented with whey protein had no significant change in body composition or serum glucose at 12 weeks compared with the control or casein group. Fasting TAG levels were significantly lowered in the whey group compared with the control group at 6 weeks (P = 0·025) and 12 weeks (P = 0·035). There was a significant decrease in total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol at week 12 in the whey group compared with the casein (P = 0·026 and 0·045, respectively) and control groups (P < 0·001 and 0·003, respectively). Fasting insulin levels and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance scores were also significantly decreased in the whey group compared with the control group (P = 0·049 and P = 0·034, respectively). The present study demonstrated that supplementation with whey proteins improves fasting lipids and insulin levels in overweight and obese individuals.

Large-scale aetiological studies of obesity and its pathological consequences require accurate measurements of adipose mass, distribution and subtype. Here, we compared the validity of three abdominal obesity assessment methods (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), ultrasound and anthropometry) against the gold-standard method of computed tomography (CT) in twenty-nine non-diseased middle-aged men (BMI 26·5 (sd 3·1) kg/m2) and women (BMI 25·5 (sd 3·2) kg/m2). Assessments of adipose mass (kg) and distribution (total subcutaneous (TSAT), superficial subcutaneous (SSAT), deep subcutaneous (DSAT) and visceral (VAT)) were obtained. Spearman's correlations were performed adjusted for age and sex. VAT area that was assessed using ultrasound (r 0·79; P < 0·0001) and waist circumference (r 0·85; P < 0·0001) correlated highly with VAT from CT, as did BMI (r 0·67; P < 0·0001) and DXA (r 0·70; P < 0·0001). DXA (r 0·72; P = 0·0004), BMI (r 0·71; P = 0·0003), waist circumference (r 0·86; P < 0·0001) and ultrasound (r 0·52; P = 0·015) were less strongly correlated with CT TSAT. None of the comparison measures of DSAT was strongly correlated with CT DSAT (all r approximately 0·50; P < 0·02). BMI (r 0·76; P < 0·0001), waist circumference (r 0·65; P = 0·002) and DXA (r 0·75; P < 0·0001) were all fairly strongly correlated with the CT measure of SSAT, whereas ultrasound yielded a weaker yet statistically significant correlation (r 0·48; P = 0·03). Compared with CT, visceral and subcutaneous adiposity can be assessed with reasonable validity using waist circumference and BMI, respectively. Ultrasound or DXA does not generally provide substantially better measures of these traits. Highly valid assessments of DSAT do not appear to be possible with surrogate measures. These findings may help guide the selection of measures for epidemiological studies of obesity.

Several dietary factors have been associated with the occurrence of cancers of the oral cavity and oropharynx, larynx and oesophagus, collectively called upper aerodigestive tract (UADT) cancers, but the evidence is considered as inconclusive. We hypothesised that the traditional Mediterranean dietary pattern may be more strongly inversely associated with UADT cancer risk than individual dietary components, and may explain the unexpectedly low incidence of these cancers in Greece. In the context of the European alcohol-related cancers and genetic susceptibility in Europe project, we have conducted a hospital-based case–control study in Athens, Greece, comparing 239 incident UADT cases and 194 hospital controls with admission diagnoses unrelated to tobacco, alcohol or diet. Adherence to Mediterranean diet was assessed through a widely used score, which ranges from 0 (minimal adherence) to 9 (maximal adherence) and increases with high consumption of plant foods and olive oil and low consumption of meat, dairy products and saturated lipids. Stricter adherence to the Mediterranean diet was associated with a substantial and significant decrease in UADT cancer risk (30 % for a two-unit increase in score), whereas after mutual adjustment, no individual dietary component of this diet was significantly associated with this risk. Adherence to the traditional Mediterranean diet is associated with reduced risk of UADT cancers, and may explain the lower incidence of UADT cancers in Greece, in spite of the smoking and drinking habits of this population.

Our genome adapts slowly to changing conditions of existence. Many diseases of civilisation result from mismatches between our Paleolithic genome and the rapidly changing environment, including our diet. The objective of the present study was to reconstruct multiple Paleolithic diets to estimate the ranges of nutrient intakes upon which humanity evolved. A database of, predominantly East African, plant and animal foods (meat/fish) was used to model multiple Paleolithic diets, using two pathophysiological constraints (i.e. protein < 35 energy % (en%) and linoleic acid (LA) >1·0 en%), at known hunter–gatherer plant/animal food intake ratios (range 70/30–30/70 en%/en%). We investigated selective and non-selective savannah, savannah/aquatic and aquatic hunter–gatherer/scavenger foraging strategies. We found (range of medians in en%) intakes of moderate-to-high protein (25–29), moderate-to-high fat (30–39) and moderate carbohydrates (39–40). The fatty acid composition was SFA (11·4–12·0), MUFA (5·6–18·5) and PUFA (8·6–15·2). The latter was high in α-linolenic acid (ALA) (3·7–4·7 en%), low in LA (2·3–3·6 en%), and high in long-chain PUFA (LCP; 4·75–25·8 g/d), LCP n-3 (2·26–17·0 g/d), LCP n-6 (2·54–8·84 g/d), ALA/LA ratio (1·12–1·64 g/g) and LCP n-3/LCP n-6 ratio (0·84–1·92 g/g). Consistent with the wide range of employed variables, nutrient intakes showed wide ranges. We conclude that compared with Western diets, Paleolithic diets contained consistently higher protein and LCP, and lower LA. These are likely to contribute to the known beneficial effects of Paleolithic-like diets, e.g. through increased satiety/satiation. Disparities between Paleolithic, contemporary and recommended intakes might be important factors underlying the aetiology of common Western diseases. Data on Paleolithic diets and lifestyle, rather than the investigation of single nutrients, might be useful for the rational design of clinical trials.