Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T11:34:35.086Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Prospects for the biological control of subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae), with special reference to Coptotermes formosanus

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 March 2010

T.W. Culliney  and
J.K. Grace
T.W. Culliney*
Affiliation:
Hawaii Department of Agriculture, Division of Plant Industry, 1428 South King Street, Honolulu, Hawaii 96814, USA
J.K. Grace
Affiliation:
Department of Plant and Environmental Protection Sciences, University of Hawaii, 3050 Maile Way, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822, USA
*
*Fax: (808) 973 9533 E-mail: culliney@elele.peacesat.hawaii.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Costs associated with subterranean termite damage and control are estimated to approach $2 billion annually in the United States alone. The Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, is one of the more economically important subterranean species. In recent years, the shortcomings associated with conventional chemical control methods have prompted policymakers and scientists to evaluate the potential for biological control of subterranean termites (C. formosanusin particular), that is, to determine the potential for natural enemies –predators, parasitoids and pathogens – to suppress termite populations. Ants are the greatest predators of termites, and may have a considerable local impact on termite populations in some areas of the world. A few parasitoids of termites are known, but their potential for regulating termite populations seems negligible. Characteristics of the colony, such as a protected, underground location (and, for the C. formosanus nest, its modular and dispersed nature), are likely to limit the impact predators and parasitoids have on subterranean termites. Thus, there seems little potential for use of these agents for subterranean termite control. For various reasons, pathogenic organisms, such as viruses, bacteria, Protozoa, nematodes and most fungi, have shown little promise for use in biological termite control. However, research suggests that strains of two well-studied, endoparasitic fungi, Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae, when employed in baiting schemes, may offer the potential for at least some measure of subterranean termite control, although their successful use is compromised by a number of inherent biological limitations and logistical problems that have yet to be solved. Although not strictly in the realm of classical biological control, recent studies suggest that natural products, such as ant semiochemicals and fungal metabolites (siderophores), or their synthetic analogues, eventually might find a use in termite control programmes as repellents or insecticides in wood treatments or soil applications if stable formulations can be developed.

Type
Review Article
Information
Bulletin of Entomological Research , Volume 90 , Issue 1 , February 2000 , pp. 9 - 21
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2000

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Al Fazairy, A.A. & Hassan, F.A. (1988) Infection of termites by Spodoptera littoralis nuclear polyhedrosis virus. Insect Science and its Application 9, 37–39.Google Scholar
Al Fazairy, A.A. & Hassan, F.A. (1993) Histopathology of termite Kalotermes flavicollis Fabr. infected with a nuclear polyhedrosis virus. Insect Science and its Application 14, 127–134.Google Scholar
Altson, R.A. (1947) A fungus parasitic on Coptotermes curvignathus, Holmgr. Nature 160, 120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amburgey, T.L. & Beal, R.H. (1977) White rot inhibits termite attack. Sociobiology 3, 35–38.Google Scholar
Arnold, G. (1915) A monograph of the Formicidae of South Africa. Annals of the South African Museum 14, 1–766.Google Scholar
Askew, R.R. (1971) Parasitic insects. 316 pp. New York, American Elsevier Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Bao, L.–L. & Yendol, W.G. (1971) Infection of the eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) [sic] with the fungus Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuill. Entomophaga 16, 343–352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beal, R.H. & Kais, A.G. (1962) Apparent infection of subterranean termites by Aspergillus flavus Link. Journal of Insect Pathology 4, 488–489.Google Scholar
Becker, G. & Kerner–Gang, W. (1964) Schädigung und Förderung von Termiten durch Schimmelpilze. Zeitschrift für Angewandte Entomologie 53, 429–448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackwell, M. (1980) New records of termite–infesting fungi. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 35, 101–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackwell, M. & Gilbertson, R.L. (1981) Cordycepioideus octosporus, a termite suspected pathogen from Jalisco, Mexico. Mycologia 73, 358–362.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackwell, M. & Gilbertson, R.L. (1984) New information on Cordycepioideus bisporus and Cordycepioideus octosporus. Mycologia 76, 763–765.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackwell, M. & Kimbrough, J.W. (1976) Ultrastructure of the termite–associated fungus Laboulbeniopsis termitarius. Mycologia 68, 541–550.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blackwell, M. & Kimbrough, J.W. (1978) Hormiscioideus filamentosus gen. et sp. nov., a termite–infesting fungus from Brazil. Mycologia 70, 1274–1280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackwell, M. & Rossi, W. (1986) Biogeography of fungal ectoparasites of termites. Mycotaxon 25, 581–601.Google Scholar
Bodot, P. (1961) La destruction des termitières de Bellicositermes natalensis Hav., par une Fourmi, Dorylus (Typhlopone) dentifrons Wasmann. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences 253, 3053–3054.Google Scholar
Bridwell, J.C. (1920) Some notes on Hawaiian and other Bethlylidae [sic] (Hymenoptera) with the description of a new genus and species. 2nd paper. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society 4, 291–305.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buchli, H. (1960) L'effet du champignon parasite Antennopsis gallica sur les jeunes colonies de Termites. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences 250, 1320–1321.Google Scholar
Burges, H.D. (1981) Strategy for the microbial control of pests in 1980 and beyond. pp. 797–836 in Burges, H.D. (Ed.) Microbial control of pests and plant diseases 1970–1980. London, Academic Press.Google Scholar
Colla, S. (1928) Su alcuni funghi parassiti delle termiti. Bollettino del Laboratorio di Zoologia Generale e Agraria del R. Istituto Superiore Agrario di Portici 22, 39–48.Google Scholar
Collins, N.M. (1981) Populations, age structure and survivorship of colonies of Macrotermes bellicosus (Isoptera: Macrotermitinae). Journal of Animal Ecology 50, 293–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cornelius, M.L. & Grace, J.K. (1994) Semiochemicals extracted from a dolichoderine ant affects [sic] the feeding and tunneling behavior of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 87, 705–708.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cornelius, M.L. & Grace, J.K. (1996) Effect of two ant species (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) on the foraging and survival of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Environmental Entomology 25, 85–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cornelius, M.L. & Grace, J.K. (1997) Effect of termite soldiers on the foraging behavior of Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in the presence of predatory ants. Sociobiology 29, 247–253.Google Scholar
Cornelius, M.L., Grace, J.K., Ford, P.W. & Davidson, B.S. (1995) Toxicity and repellency of semiochemicals extracted from a dolichoderine ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) to the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Environmental Entomology 24, 1263–1269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Danthanarayana, W. & Vitarana, S.I. (1987) Control of the live–wood tea termite Glyptotermes dilatatus using Heterorhabditis sp. (Nemat.) Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 19, 333–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DeBach, P. & Rosen, D. (1991) Biological control by natural enemies. 2nd edn. 440 pp. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Delate, K.M., Grace, J.K. & Tome, C.H.M. (1995) Potential use of pathogenic fungi in baits to control the Formosan subterranean termite (Isopt., Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Applied Entomology 119, 429–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deligne, J., Quennedey, A. & Blum, M.S. (1981) The enemies and defense mechanisms of termites. pp. 1–76 in Hermann, H.R. (Ed.) Social insects, vol. 2. New York, Academic Press.Google Scholar
Desportes, I. (1963) Cycle évolutif d'une nouvelle Grégarine parasite de Termites: Diplocystis zootermopsidis sp.n. (Eugregarina, Diplocystidae). Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences 257, 4013–4015.Google Scholar
Disney, R.H.L. (1986) Two remarkable new species of scuttle–fly (Diptera: Phoridae) that parasitize termites (Isoptera) in Sulawesi. Systematic Entomology 11, 413–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Disney, R.H.L. (1988) Biology and taxonomy of old world Puliciphora (Diptera: Phoridae) with descriptions of nine new species. Oriental Insects 22, 267–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Disney, R.H.L. & Kistner, D.H. (1989) Six new species of oriental Phoridae from termite nests (Diptera; Isoptera; Termitidae and Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 15, 325–348.Google Scholar
Disney, R.H.L. & Kistner, D.H. (1990) Revision of the termite–parasitizing genus Dicranopteron (Diptera: Phoridae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 98, 111–122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edwards, R. & Mill, A.E. (1986) Termites in buildings: their biology and control. 261 pp. East Grinstead, United Kingdom, Rentokil Ltd.Google Scholar
Epsky, N.D. & Capinera, J.L. (1988) Efficacy of the entomogenous nematode Steinernema feltiae against a subterranean termite, Reticulitermes tibialis (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 81, 1313–1317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Federici, B.A. (1990) Bright horizons for invertebrate pathology. pp. v–ix in Proceedings and Abstracts. Vth International Colloquium on Invertebrate Pathology and Microbial Control, Adelaide, Australia 20–24 August 1990. Adelaide, Society for Invertebrate Pathology.Google Scholar
Fernandes, P.M. (1991) Controle microbiano de Cornitermes cumulans (Kollar, 1832) utilizando Beauveria bassiana (Bals.) Vuill. e Metarhizium anisopliae (Metsch.) Sorok. PhD dissertation, ESALQ–Universidade de Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, Brazil.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferron, P. (1978) Biological control of insect pests by entomogenous fungi. Annual Review of Entomology 23, 409–442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fujii, J.K. (1975) Effects of an entomogenous nematode, Neoaplectana carpocapsae Weiser, on the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, with ecological and biological studies on C formosanus. 163 pp. PhD dissertation, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
Fuxa, J.R. (1990) New directions for insect control with baculoviruses. pp. 97–113 in Baker, R.R. & Dunn, P.E. (Eds) New directions in biological control: alternatives for suppressing agricultural pests and diseases. New York, Alan R. Liss, Inc.Google Scholar
Gao, D.–R. (1987) Use of attractants in bait toxicants for the control of Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki in China. pp. 53–57 in Tamashiro, M. & Su, N.–Y. (Eds) Biology and control of the Formosan subterranean termite. Honolulu, University of Hawaii College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources Research Extension Series 083.Google Scholar
Gaugler, R. (1988) Ecological considerations in the biological control of soil–inhabiting insects with entomopathogenic nematodes. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 24, 351–360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Georgis, R., Poinar, G.O. & Wilson, A.P. (1982) Susceptibility of damp–wood termites and soil and wood–dwelling termites to the entomogenous nematode Neoaplectana carpocapsae. IRCS Medical Science 10, 563.Google Scholar
Gibbs, A.J., Gay, F.J. & Wetherly, A.H. (1970) A possible paralysis virus of termites. Virology 40, 1063–1065.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gitonga, W. (1996) Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) Sorokin and Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin as potential biological control agents of Macrotermes michaelseni (Sjöstedt) (Isoptera: Termitidae) in Kenya. 144 pp. PhD dissertation, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Copenhagen, Denmark.Google Scholar
Gouger, R.J. & Kimbrough, J.W. (1969) Antennopsis gallica Heim and Buchli (Hyphomycetes: Gloeohaustoriales), an entomogenous fungus on subterranean termites in Florida.. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 13, 223–228.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grace, J.K. (1991) Termite–fungal associations and manipulations for termite control. p. 29 in Program and Abstracts. 24th annual meeting, Society for Invertebrate Pathology, Northern Arizona University, August 4–9, 1991. Flagstaff, Arizona, Society for Invertebrate Pathology.Google Scholar
Grace, J.K. (1993) Microbial termite control: effects of entomogenous fungi on the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). p. 474 in Wildey, K.B. & Robinson, W.H. (Eds) Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Insect Pests in the Urban EnvironmentSt John's College, Cambridge30 June–3 July 1993Exeter, Organizing Committee of the International Conference on Insect Pests in the Urban Environment.Google Scholar
Grace, J.K. (1994) Protocol for testing effects of microbial pest control agents on nontarget subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 87, 269–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grace, J.K. (1995) Microbial termite control. pp. 166–167 in Hawaii agriculture: positioning for growth. Proceedings of a conference organized by the College of Tropical Agriculture & Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 5–6 April 1995. Honolulu, CTAHR.Google Scholar
Grace, J.K. (1997) Biological control strategies for suppression of termites. Journal of Agricultural Entomology 14, 281–289.Google Scholar
Grace, J.K. & Ewart, D.M. (1996) Recombinant cells of Pseudomonas fluorescens: a highly palatable encapsulation for delivery of genetically engineered toxins to subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Letters in Applied Microbiology 23, 183–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grace, J.K. & Zoberi, M.H. (1992) Experimental evidence for transmission of Beauveria bassiana by Reticulitermes flavipes workers (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 20, 23–28.Google Scholar
Grace, J.K., Goodell, B.S., Jones, W.E., Chandhoke, V. & Jellison, J. (1992) Evidence for inhibition of termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) feeding by extracellular metabolites of a wood decay fungus. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society 31, 249–252.Google Scholar
Grace, J.K., Tome, C.H.M., Shelton, T.G., Oshiro, R.J. & Yates, J.R. III (1996) Baiting studies and considerations with Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in Hawaii. Sociobiology 28, 511–520.Google Scholar
Gross, P. (1991) Influence of target pest feeding niche on success rates in classical biological control. Environmental Entomology 20, 1217–1227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hänel, H. (1981) A bioassay for measuring the virulence of the insect pathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Metsch.) Sorok. (fungi imperfecti) [sic] against the termite Nasutitermes exitiosus (Hill) (Isoptera, Termitidae). Zeitschrift für Angewandte Entomologie 92, 9–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hänel, H. (1982) The life cycle of the insect pathogenic fungus. Metarhizium anisopliae in the termite Nasutitermes exitiosus. Mycopathologia 80, 137–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hänel, H. (1982) Selection of a fungus species, suitable for the biological control of the termite Nasutitermes exitiosus (Hill). Zeitschrift für Angewandte Entomologie 94, 237–245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hänel, H. & Watson, J.A.L. (1983) Preliminary field tests on the use of Metarhizium anisopliae for the control of Nasutitermes exitiosus (Hill) (Isoptera: Termitidae). Bulletin of Entomological Research 73, 305–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HDOA (1994) Report to the Eighteenth Legislature, 1995 regular session, in response to Section 20.1, Act 252, Session Laws of Hawaii, 1994 regular session, requesting the Department of Agriculture to evaluate methods for controlling the Formosan termite through biological control agents. 24 pp. Unpublished report. Honolulu, Hawaii Department of Agriculture.Google Scholar
Henry, J.E. (1990) Control of insects by Protozoa. pp. 161–176 in Baker, R.R. & Dunn, P.E. (Eds) New directions in biological control: alternatives for suppressing agricultural pests and diseases. New York, Alan R.Liss, Inc.Google Scholar
Hölldobler, B. & Wilson, E.O. (1990) The ants 732 pp. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Howarth, F.G. (1991) Environmental impacts of classical biological control. Annual Review of Entomology 36, 485–509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huffaker, C.B. & Messenger, P.S. (1976) Theory and practice of biological control. 788 pp. New York, Academic Press.Google Scholar
Jafri, R.H., Ahmad, M. & Idrees, K. (1976) Microsporidian infection in the workers of termite, Microcerotermes championi. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 8, 234–236.Google Scholar
Johnson, J.B. & Hagen, K.S. (1981) A neuropterous larva uses an allomone to attack termites. Nature 289, 506–507.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, W.E., Grace, J.K. & Tamashiro, M. (1996) Virulence of seven isolates of Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae to Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Environmental Entomology 25, 481–487.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaya, H.K. (1990) Entomopathogenic nematodes in biological control of insects. pp. 189–198 in Baker, R.R. & Dunn, P.E. (Eds) New directions in biological control: alternatives for suppressing agricultural pests and diseases. New York, Alan R. Liss, Inc.Google Scholar
Kaya, H.K. & Gaugler, R. (1993) Entomopathogenic nematodes. Annual Review of Entomology 38, 181–206.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaya, H.K., Bedding, R.A. & Akhurst, R.J. (1993) An overview of insect–parasitic and entomopathogenic nematodes. pp. 1–10 in Bedding, R.A., Akhurst, R. & Kaya, H. (Eds) Nematodes and the biological control of insect pests. East Melbourne, Australia, CSIRO.Google Scholar
Kevorkian, A.G. (1937) Studies in the Entomophthoraceae. I. Observations on the genus Conidiobolus. Journal of Agriculture of the University of Puerto Rico 21, 191–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khan, K.I., Fazal, Q. & Jafri, R.H. (1977) Pathogenicity of locally discovered. Bacillus thuringiensis strain to the termites: Heterotermes indicola (Wassman) [sic] and Microcerotermes championi (Snyder). Pakistan Journal of Scientific Research 29, 12–13.Google Scholar
Khan, K.I., Fazal, Q., Jafri, R.H. & Ahmad, M. (1977) Susceptibility of various species of termites to a pathogen, Serratia marcescens. Pakistan Journal of Scientific Research 29, 46–47.Google Scholar
Khan, K.I., Fazal, Q. & Jafri, R.H. (1978) Development of Bacillus thuringiensis in a termite, Heterotermes indicola (Wassman) [sic]. Pakistan Journal of Science 30, 117–119.Google Scholar
Khan, K.I., Jafri, R.H. & Ahmad, M. (1985) The pathogenicity and development of Bacillus thuringiensis in termites. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 17, 201–209.Google Scholar
Khan, K.I., Jafri, R.H., Ahmad, M. & Khan, K.M.S. (1992) The pathogenicity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa against termites. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 24, 243–245.Google Scholar
Khan, S.R. & Kimbrough, J.W. (1974) Morphology and development of Termitaria snyderi. Mycologia 66, 446–462.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khan, S.R. & Kimbrough, J.W. (1974) Taxonomic position of Termitaria and Mattirolella (entomogenous Deuteromycetes). American Journal of Botany 61, 395–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kimbrough, J.W. & Gouger, R.J. (1970) Structure and development of the fungus Laboulbeniopsis termitarius. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 16, 205–213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kimbrough, J.W., Morales, M.I. & Gouger, R.J. (1972) A new species of Dimeromyces (Laboulbeniales) on subterranean termites. Mycologia 64, 388–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, M.G. (1988) Pest management of soil–inhabiting insects with microorganisms. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 24, 337–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, M.G. (1990) Efficacy against soil–inhabiting insect pests. pp. 195–214 in Gaugler, R. & Kaya, H.K. (Eds) Entomopathogenic nematodes in biological control. Boca Raton, Florida, CRC Press.Google Scholar
Ko, W.H., Fujii, J.K. & Kanegawa, K.M. (1982) The nature of soil pernicious to Coptotermes formosanus. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 39, 38–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kramm, K.R. & West, D.F. (1982) Termite pathogens: effects of ingested Metarhizium, Beauveria and Gliocladium conidia on worker termites (Reticulitermes sp.). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 40, 7–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kramm, K.R., West, D.F. & Rockenbach, P.G. (1982) Termite pathogens: transfer of the entomopathogen Metarhizium anisopliae between Reticulitermes sp. termites. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 40, 1–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kühne, H. & Becker, G. (1974) Zur Biologie und Ökologie von Scleroderma domesticum Latreille (Bethylidae, Hymenoptera), einem Parasiten holzzerstörender Insektenlarven. Zeitschrift für Angewandte Entomologie 76, 278–303.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lai, P.–Y. (1977) Biology and ecology of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus, and its susceptibility to the entomogenous fungi, Beauveria bassiana and Metarrhizium [sic]. anisopliae. 140 pp. PhD dissertation, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
Lai, P.Y., Tamashiro, M. & Fujii, J.K. (1982) Pathogenicity of six strains of entomogenous fungi to Coptotermes formosanus. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 39, 1–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lai, P.Y., Tamashiro, M., Yates, J.R., Su, N.Y., Fujii, J.K. & Ebesu, R.H. (1983) Living plants in Hawaii attacked by Coptotermes formosanus. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society 24, 283–286.Google Scholar
Laumond, C., Mauléon, H. & Kermarrec, A. (1979) Données nouvelles sur le spectre d'hôtes et le parasitisme du nématode entomophage Neoaplectana carpocapsae. Entomophaga 24, 13–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, K.E. & Wood, T.G. (1971) Termites and soils. 251 pp. London, Academic Press.Google Scholar
Leong, K.L.H. (1966) Infection of the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki [sic] by the fungus, Metarrhizium [sic] anisopliae (Metch.) Sorokin. 53 pp. Master's thesis, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.Google Scholar
Lepage, M.G. & Darlington, J.P.E.C. (1984) Observations on the ant Carebara vidua F. Smith preying on termites in Kenya. Journal of Natural History 18, 293–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levieux, J. (1966) Note préliminaire sur les colonnes de chasse de Megaponera foetens F. (Hyménoptère Formicidae). Insectes Sociaux 13, 117–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lin, S.–Q. (1987) Present status of Coptotermes formosanus and its control in China. pp. 31–37 in Tamashiro, M. & Su, N.–Y. (Eds) Biology and control of the Formosan subterranean termite. Honolulu, University of Hawaii College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources Research Extension Series 083.Google Scholar
Logan, J.W.M., Cowie, R.H. & Wood, T.G. (1990) Termite (Isoptera) control in agriculture and forestry by non–chemical methods: a review. Bulletin of Entomological Research 80, 309–330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Longhurst, C. & Howse, P.E. (1979) Foraging, recruitment and emigration in Megaponera foetens (Fab.) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) from the Nigerian Guinea Savanna. Insectes Sociaux 26, 204–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Longhurst, C., Johnson, R.A. & Wood, T.G. (1978) Predation by Megaponera foetens (Fabr.) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) on termites in the Nigerian southern Guinea Savanna. Oecologia 32, 101–107.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Longhurst, C., Baker, R. & Howse, P.E. (1979) Termite predation by Megaponera foetens (Fab.) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): coordination of raids by glandular secretions. Journal of Chemical Ecology 5, 703–719.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Longhurst, C., Johnson, R.A. & Wood, T.G. (1979) Foraging, recruitment and predation by Decamorium uelense (Sanstchi) (Formicidae: Myrmicinae) on termites in southern Guinea Savanna, Nigeria. Oecologia 38, 83–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lund, A.E. (1971) Microbial control of termites. pp. 385–386 in Burges, H.D. & Hussey, N.W. (Eds) Microbial control of insects and mites. London, Academic Press.Google Scholar
Lund, A.E. & Engelhardt, N.T. (1962) Subterranean termites and Absidia coerulea Bainier (Mucorales). Journal of Insect Pathology 4, 131–132.Google Scholar
Martin, P.A.W. (1994) An iconoclastic view of Bacillus thuringiensis ecology. American Entomologist 40, 85–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maschwitz, U. & Mühlenberg, M. (1975) Zur Jagdstrategie einiger orientalischer Leptogenys-Arten (Formicidae: Ponerinae). Oecologia 20, 65–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maschwitz, U. & Schönegge, P. (1983) Forage communication, nest moving recruitment, and prey specialization in the oriental ponerine Leptogenys chinensis. Oecologia 57, 175–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mauldin, J.K. (1986) Economic importance and control of termites in the United States. pp. 130–143 in Vinson, S.B. (Ed.) Economic impact and control of social insects. New York, Praeger Publishers.Google Scholar
Mauldin, J.K. & Beal, R.H. (1989) Entomogenous nematodes for control of subterranean termites, Reticulitermes spp. (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 82, 1638–1642.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCoy, C.W. (1990) Entomogenous fungi as microbial pesticides. pp. 139–159 in Baker, R.R. & Dunn, P.E. (Eds) New directions in biological control: alternatives for suppressing agricultural pests and diseases. New York, Alan R. Liss, Inc.Google Scholar
Merrill, J.H. & Ford, A.L. (1916) Life history and habits of two new nematodes parasitic on insects. Journal of Agricultural Research 6, 115–127.Google Scholar
Milner, R.J. (1992) Selection and characterization of strains of Metarhizium anisopliae for control of soil insects in Australia. pp. 200–207 in Lomer, C.J. & Prior, C. (Eds) Biological control of locusts and grasshoppers. Wallingford, CAB International.Google Scholar
Milner, R.J., Staples, J.A. & Lenz, M. (1996) Options for termite management using the insect pathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae. International Research Group on Wood Preservation IRG/WP 9610142, pp. 1–5.Google Scholar
Mori, H. (1987) The Formosan subterranean termite in Japan: its distribution, damage, and current and potential control measures. pp. 23–26 in Tamashiro, M. & Su, N.–Y. (Eds) Biology and control of the Formosan subterranean termite. Honolulu, University of Hawaii College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources Research Extension Series 083.Google Scholar
Nickle, W.R. & Welch, H.E. (1984) History, development, and importance of insect nematology. pp. 627–653 in Nickle, W.R. (Ed.) Plant and insect nematodes. New York, Marcel Dekker, Inc.Google Scholar
Nutting, W.L. (1969) Flight and colony foundation. pp. 233–282 in Krishna, K. & Weesner, F.M. (Eds) Biology of termites, vol. 1. New York, Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ochiel, G.R.S. (1995) Biology and biocontrol potential of Cordycepioideus bisporus Stifler and Paecilomyces fumosoroseus (Wize) Brown and Smith on the higher termite Macrotermes subhyalinus (Rambur) in Kenya. 210 pp. PhD dissertation, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Copenhagen, Denmark.Google Scholar
Ochiel, G.R.S., Evans, H.C. & Eilenberg, J. (1997) Cordycepioideus, a pathogen of termites in Kenya. Mycologist 11, 7–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ohiagu, C.E. & Wood, T.G. (1976) A method for measuring rate of grass–harvesting by Trinervitermes geminatus (Wasmann) (Isoptera, Nasutitermitinae) and observation on its foraging behaviour in southern Guinea Savanna, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Ecology 13, 705–713.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pearce, M.J. (1997) Termites: biology and pest management. 172 pp. Wallingford, CAB International.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pemberton, C.E. (1928a) Thysanuran predatory on eggs and immature forms of termites in Borneo.. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society 7, 147.Google Scholar
Pemberton, C.E. (1928) Nematodes associated with termites in Hawaii, Borneo and Celebes. Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society 7, 148–150.Google Scholar
Phillipsen, W.J. & Coppel, H.C. (1977) Acotyledon formosani sp. n. associated with the Formosan subterranean termite, Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki (Acarina: Acaridae–Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 50, 399–409.Google Scholar
Pimentel, D., Glenister, C., Fast, S. & Gallahan, D. (1984) Environmental risks of biological pest controls. Oikos 42, 283–290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Popiel, I. & Hominick, W.H. (1992) Nematodes as biological control agents: Part II. Advances in Parasitology 31, 381–433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preston, A.F., Erbisch, F.H., Kramm, K.R. & Lund, A.E. (1982) Developments in the use of biological control for wood preservation. Proceedings of the American Wood–Preservers’ Association 78, 53–61.Google Scholar
Rath, A.C. & Tidbury, C.A. (1996) Susceptibility of Coptotermes acinaciformis (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) and Nasutitermes exitiosus (Isoptera: Termitidae) to two commercial isolates of Metarhizium anisopliae. Sociobiology 28, 67–72.Google Scholar
Rosengaus, R.B. & Traniello, J.F.A. (1997) Pathobiology and disease transmission in dampwood termites [Zootermopsis angusticollis (Isoptera: Termopsidae)] infected with the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae (Deuteromycotina: Hypomycetes). Sociobiology 30, 185–195.Google Scholar
Rossi, W. (1974) Una nuova specie di Laboulbenia (Ascomycetes, Laboulbeniales) parassita di termiti. Doriana 5, 1–5.Google Scholar
Sajap, A.S. & Kaur, K. (1990) Histopathology of Metarhizium anisopliae, an entomopathogenic fungus, infection in the termite, Coptotermes curvignathus. Pertanika 13, 331–334.Google Scholar
Sajap, A.S., Atim, A.B., Husin, H. & Wahab, Y.A. (1997) Isolation of Conidiobolus coronatus (Zygomycetes: Entomophthorales) from soil and its effect on Coptotermes curvignathus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 30, 257–262.Google Scholar
Sannasi, A. (1968) Apparent infection of queens and drones of the mound–building termite Odontotermes obesus by Aspergillus flavus. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 10, 434–435.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schmitz, H. (1938) Misotermes exenterans n.g. n.sp., eine parasitische Fliege aus der Familie der Phoriden, welche die Entstehung myiagener Soldaten bei Macrotermes gilvus Hag. in Java verursacht. Treubia 16, 369–397.Google Scholar
Secord, D. & Kareiva, P. (1996) Perils and pitfalls in the host specificity paradigm. BioScience 46, 448–453.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheppe, W. (1970) Invertebrate predation on termites of the African savanna. Insectes Sociaux 17, 205–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, K.M. (1967) Insect virology. 256 pp. New York, Academic Press.Google Scholar
Smythe, R.V. & Coppel, H.C. (1965) The susceptibility of Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) and other termite species to an experimental preparation of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 7, 423–426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smythe, R.V. & Coppel, H.C. (1966) Pathogenicity of externally occurring fungi to Reticulitermes flavipes. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 8, 266–267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Staples, J. & Milner, R. (1996) Metarhizium anisopliae as a mycotermiticide–laboratory behavioural bioassay. p. 493 in Wildey, K.B. (Ed.) Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Insect Pests in the Urban Environment, Edinburgh, 7–10 July 1996. Exeter, Organizing Committee of the International Conference on Insect Pests in the Urban Environment.Google Scholar
Steinhaus, E.A. & Marsh, G.A. (1962) Report of diagnoses of diseased insects 1951–1961. Hilgardia 33, 349–490.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stifler, C.B. (1941) A new genus of Hypocreales. Mycologia 33, 82–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Su, N.–Y. (1993) Managing subterranean termite populations. pp. 45–50 in Wildey, K.B. & Robinson, W.H. (Eds) Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Insect Pests in the Urban Environment, Cambridge, 30 June–3 July 1993. Exeter, Organizing Committee of the International Conference on Insect Pests in the Urban Environment.Google Scholar
Su, N.–Y. (1994) Field evaluation of a hexaflumuron bait for population suppression of subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 87, 389–397.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Su, N.–Y. & Scheffrahn, R.H. (1990) Economically important termites in the United States and their control. Sociobiology 17, 77–94.Google Scholar
Su, N.–Y. & Scheffrahn, R.H. (1993) Laboratory evaluation of two chitin synthesis inhibitors, hexaflumuron and diflubenzuron, as bait toxicants against Formosan and eastern subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Economic Entomology 86, 1453–1457.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Su, N.–Y. & Scheffrahn, R.H. (1998) A review of subterranean termite control practices and prospects for integrated pest management programmes. Integrated Pest Management Reviews 3, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Su, N.–Y. & Tamashiro, M. (1987) An overview of the Formosan subterranean termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) in the world. pp. 3–15 in Tamashiro, M. & Su, N.–Y. (Eds) Biology and control of the Formosan subterranean termite. Honolulu, University of Hawaii College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources Research Extension Series 083.Google Scholar
Su, N.–Y., Thoms, E.M., Ban, P.M. & Scheffrahn, R.H. (1995) Monitoring/baiting station to detect and eliminate foraging populations of subterranean termites (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) near structures. Journal of Economic Entomology 88, 932–936.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suzuki, K. (1991) Laboratory trials of biological control agents against subterranean termites. International Research Group on Wood Preservation IRG/WP/1475, pp. 1–11.Google Scholar
Suzuki, K. (1996) Biological control of termites by pathogenic fungi. pp. 146–156 in Forestry and Forest Products Research: Proceedings of the Third Conference, Kepong, Malaysia, 3–4 October 1995, volume 2. Kepong, Forest Research Institute of Malaysia.Google Scholar
Tamashiro, M., Yates, J.R. & Ebesu, R.H. (1987) The Formosan subterranean termite in Hawaii: problems and control. pp. 15–22 in Tamashiro, M. & Su, N.–Y. (Eds) Biology and control of the Formosan subterranean termite. Honolulu, University of Hawaii College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources Research Extension Series 083.Google Scholar
Tate, P. (1927) On Ectomyces calotermi n.g., n.sp., an Ascomycete parasitic on Calotermes samoanus Holmgren (Isoptera, Protermitidae). Parasitology 19, 54–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tate, P. (1928) Notes on the genera Ectomyces and Termitaria, fungi parasitic on termites. Parasitology 20, 77–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thaxter, R. (1895) Notes on Laboulbeniaceae, with descriptions of new species. Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 30, 467–481.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thaxter, R. (1920) Second note on certain peculiar fungus–parasites of living insects. Botanical Gazette 69, 1–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toumanoff, C. (1965) Action de divers champignons entomophages sur Reticulitermes santonensis: aperçu général. Annales de Parasitologie Humaine et Comparée 40, 611–624.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toumanoff, C. & Rombaut, J. (1965) Action de certains champignons entomophages, cultivés sur les milieux appropriés attractifs, sur le Termite de Saintonge Reticulitermes santonensis (de Feytaud). Annales de Parasitologie Humaine et Comparée 40, 605–609.Google Scholar
Traniello, J.F.A. (1981) Enemy deterrence in the recruitment strategy of a termite: soldier–organized foraging in Nasutitermes costalis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 78, 1976–1979.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trudeau, D. (1989) Selection of entomophilic nematodes for control of the eastern subterranean termite, Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar) (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). 93 pp. Master's thesis, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.Google Scholar
USDA (1999) Agricultural Research Service National Formosan Termite Program; http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/fullstop/faqenviro.htm; 3 pp. [Accessed 15 September 1999].Google Scholar
Veeresh, G.K. (1984) A report on the ‘crazy ant’ (Anoplolepis longipes Jerdon) menace in Karnataka. Journal of Soil Biology and Ecology 4, 65–73.Google Scholar
Wahlman, M. & Davidson, B.S. (1993) New destruxins from the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae. Journal of Natural Products (Lloydia) 56, 643–647.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber, N.A. (1964) Termite prey of some African ants. Entomological News 75, 197–204.Google Scholar
Wells, J.D. & Henderson, G. (1993) Fire ant predation on native and introduced subterranean termites in the laboratory: effect of high soldier number in Coptotermes formosanus. Ecological Entomology 18, 270–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wells, J.D., Fuxa, J.R. & Henderson, G. (1995) Virulence of four fungal pathogens to Coptotermes formosanus (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Journal of Entomological Science 30, 208–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wheeler, W.M. (1936) Ecological relations of ponerine and other ants to termites. Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 71, 159–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williams, R.M.C. (1959) Colony development in Cubitermes ugandensis Fuller (Isoptera: Termitidae). Insectes Sociaux 6, 291–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, N.L. & Oliver, A.D. (1969) Food habits of the imported fire ant in pasture and pine forest areas in southeastern Louisiana. Journal of Economic Entomology 62, 1268–1271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wood, T.G. & Johnson, R.A. (1986) The biology, physiology, and ecology of termites. pp. 1–68 in Vinson, S.B. (Ed.) Economic impact and control of social insects. New York, Praeger Publishers.Google Scholar
Wood, T.G. & Sands, W.A. (1978) The role of termites in ecosystems. pp. 245–292 in Brian, M.V. (Ed.) Production ecology of ants and termites. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Yates, J.R. III, Grace, J.K. & Tamashiro, M. (1997) The Formosan subterranean termite: a review of new management methods in Hawaii. pp. 59–68 in Chan, J. (Ed.) Proceedings of 1997 FAOPMA Convention held in Hong Kong, April 7–9, 1997. Hong Kong, Hong Kong Pest Control Association.Google Scholar
Yendol, W.G. & Paschke, J.D. (1965) Pathology of an Entomophthora infection in the eastern subterranean termite Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar). Journal of Invertebrate Pathology 7, 414–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yin, S.–C. (1994) Inveterate enemy of subterranean termites Dorylus orientalis Westwood. p. 2333 in Xia, K. (Ed.) Selected papers on Chinese termitology (1984–1993), vol. 3. Nanjing, Tian Ze Press.Google Scholar
Yoshimura, T. & Takahashi, M. (1998) Termiticidal performance of an entomogenous fungus, Beauveria brongniartii (Saccardo) Petch [sic] in laboratory tests. Japanese Journal of Environmental Entomology and Zoology 9, 16–22.Google Scholar
Yoshimura, T., Tsunoda, K., Takahashi, M. & Katsuda, Y. (1992) Pathogenicity of an entomogenous fungus, Conidiobolus coronatus Tyrrell and Macleod, to Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki. Japanese Journal of Environmental Entomology and Zoology 4, 11–16.Google Scholar
Zimmerman, E.C. (1948) Insects of Hawaii, vol. 2. Apterygota to Thysanoptera. 475 pp. Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press.Google Scholar
Zoberi, M.H. (1995) Metarhizium anisopliae, a fungal pathogen of Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Mycologia 87, 354–359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zoberi, M.H. & Grace, J.K. (1990) Isolation of the pathogen Beauveria bassiana from Reticulitermes flavipes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology 16, 289–296.Google Scholar
Zoberi, M.H. & Grace, J.K. (1990) Fungi associated with the subterranean termite Reticulitermes flavipes in Ontario. Mycologia 82, 289–294.CrossRefGoogle Scholar