Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-t5tsf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T07:16:38.625Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Custom and Sharī'a in the Bedouin family according to legal documents from the Judaean Desert1

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 December 2009

Aharon Layish  and
Avshalom Shmueli
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

This paper, by means of original Bedouin documents relating to matters of personal status, attempts to disclose interaction between custom and sharī'a and to illuminate some of the mechanisms tending to complete the islamization of a tribal society in process of sedentarization. The Bedouin dealt with here are a group of tribes in the Jerusalem-Bethlehem region: al-Sawāhira (c. 6,000 persons now) east of Jerusalem, al-'Ubaydiyya (c. 5,500) east of Bayt Saḥūr, the 13 al-Ta'āmira tribes (c. 20,000) extending over a sector east of Bayt Saḥūr in the north to Bayt Fajjār in the south, and al-Rashā'ida (c. 500) south-east of Taqū'a. Most of these tribes originate from Ḥijaz and Najd. They appeared in the region in small groups from the sixteenth century and in time developed into tribes, while absorbing local fallāḥs. Their main numerical increase took place in the twentieth century.

Type
Articles
Information
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies , Volume 42 , Issue 1 , February 1979 , pp. 29 - 45
Copyright
Copyright © School of Oriental and African Studies 1979

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

2 For the historical background of the contest between sharī'a and custom see Layish, A., ‘Sharī'a u-minhag ba-mishpaḥa ha-Muslimit be-Yisra'el’, Ha-Mizraḥ he-Ḥadash, XXIII, 4, 1974, 377 ff.Google Scholar, and the sources indicated there.

3 For more detail see Shmueli, A., Hitnaḥalūt ha-Bedewīm shel Midbar Yehudah, Tel Aviv, 1970Google Scholar; idem, ‘Shevet ha-'Ubaydiyya—ha-shinnūyīm ba-mesheq uva-ḥeverah ‘im ha-hitnaḥalut’, in Ha-Bedewīm, Bureau of the Adviser on Arab Affairs, Prime Minister's Office, Jerusalem, 1971, 100–75; idem, Hitnaḥalūt nawwadīm be-merḥav Yerūshalayim ba-me'ah ha-'esrim, unpublished Ph.D. thesia, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 1973; idem, ‘Ha-reqa' le-hilnaḥaiūt nawwadīm be-merḥav Yerūshalayim’, Merhavim (Tel Aviv), I, 1974, 70–9; Sharon, M., ‘Ha-Bedewīm shel Har Ḥevrōn’, in Shmueli, A., Grossman, D., and Zeevi, K. (ed.), Yehūdah ve-Shōmrōn; praqīm be-geographia yeshūvīt, Jerusalem, 1977, 548–57Google Scholar; von Oppenheim, M., Die Beduinen, II, Leipzig, 1943Google Scholar; Gräf, Erwin, Das Rechtswesen der heutigen Beduinen, Walldorf-Hessen, [1952]Google Scholar.

4 See, e.g., Nimr, 'Awda al-Mubārak 'Ashīrat al-Nabāhīn al-Ta'āmira, sakk taḥkīm of 29 09 1963Google Scholar; Ibrāhīm, 'Abd Allāh al-Dar'āwī ';Ashīrat al-Shawāwira al-Ta'āmira, sanad taḥkīm of 14 11 1975Google Scholar; and al-Dhuwayb, Muhammad Salim ‘Ashīrat al-Sharāyi'a al-Ta'āmira, divorce of 25 09 1964 (awrāq)Google Scholar.

5 Schacht, J., The origins of Muhammadan jurisprudence, Oxford, 1950, 188Google Scholar; idem, An introduction to Islamic law, Oxford, 1964, 78, 72, 193; Liebesny, Herbert J., The law of the Near and Middle East; readings, cases, and materials, New York, 1975, 244 ff.Google Scholar, and the sources indicated there; Tyan, E., Histoire de l' organisation judiciaire en pays d'Islam, deuxième édition, Leiden, 1960, 236 ff.Google Scholar; Wakin, Jeanette A. (ed.), The function of documents in Islamic law: the chapters on sales from Ṭaḥāwī's Kitāb al-shurūṭ al-kabīr, Albany, N.Y., 1972, 4 ff.Google Scholar; Coulson, N. J., A history of Islamic law, Edinburgh, 1964, 125, 148Google Scholar; idem, ‘Muslim custom and case-law’. Die Welt des Islams, NS, VI, 1–2, 1959, 21.

6 'Abduh, Muhammad, Taqrīr fīiṣlāḥ al-maḥhākim al-shar'iyya, ed. Rida, Muhammad Rashld, Cairo, 1900, 34Google Scholar; Layish, A., ‘Terūmat ha-modernistīm le-ḥillūn ha-mishpaṭ hu-Muslimi’, HaMizrah he-Hadash, XXVI, 1–2, 1976, 2, 9, 10Google Scholar; Coulson, , History, 172 f.Google Scholar; Anderson, J. N. D., Law reform in the Muslim world, London, 1976, 43 ffGoogle Scholar.

7 e.g. Sulaymān Sālim Muḥammad 'Ashīrat Ṣalāḥ al-Ta'āmira, divorce, n.d.

8 Laoust, H., Essai sur Us doctrines sociales et politiques de Taḳī-d-Din Aḥmad b. Taimīya, Le Caire, 1939, 519 ff.Google Scholar; idem, Les schisme dans l' Islam; introduction à une étude de la religion musulmane, Paris, 1965, 323, 324; Smith, W. C., Islam in modern history, third printing, New York, New American Library, 1963, 48 ff.Google Scholar; Goldziher, Ignaz, Vorlesungen über den Islam, tr. into Hebrew by Rivlin, J. J., ed. Plessner, M., Jerusalem, 1951, 188 ffGoogle Scholar.

9 Baer, Gabriel, Population and society in the Arab East, London, 1964, 132Google Scholar, and the sources indicated there; idem, Studies in the history of modern Egypt, Chicago and London, 1969, 13, 14. Cf. Henninger, J., ‘La religion bedouine préislamique’, in Gabrieli, F. (ed.), Vantica societd beduina (Universita di Romà. Centro di Stndi Semitiei. Studi Semitici, 2), Roma, 1959), 125 ff.Google Scholar, and the sources indicated there.

10 Tyan, , Histoire, 48 ff.Google Scholar; idem, art. ‘Raham’, El, second ed., 72; Schacht, , Introduction, 189Google Scholar; Chelhod, Joseph, Le droiX dans la société Bédouine: recherches ethnologiques sur le 'orf ou droit coutumier des Bédouins, Paris, 1971, 144 ffGoogle Scholar.

11 The relationship between sharī'a and custom as reflected in decisions of the sharī'a courts and the opinions of muftīs will be discussed by A. Layish in a separate paper.

12 Schacht, , Introduction, 8, 25 f., 73, 83Google Scholar; Anderson, , Law reform, 8, 10 f.Google Scholar; Chelhod, J., ‘Le Bédouin et le droit’, Revue de l' Occident Musulman et de la Méditerranée (Aix-en-Provence), 11, 1972, 157CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

13 Schacht, , Origins, 58 ffGoogle Scholar. and the passages referred to there in the works of Goldziher and Margoliouth; idem, Introduction, 8, 17; Goldziher, Ignaz, Muslim studies, ed. Stern, S. M., II, London, 1971, 25 ff.Google Scholar; Wensinck, A. J., art. ‘Sunna’, El, 555Google Scholar; cf. Serjeant, R. B., ‘Ḥaram and ḥawṭah, the sacred enclave in Arabia’, in Badawi, 'Abd al-Kahman (ed.), Mélanges Ṭaha Ḥusain, Le Caire, 1962, [47–52Google Scholar.

14 e.g., Muhammad, Sulaymān Sālim 'Ashīrat §alab al-Ta'āmira, divorce, n.d.; interview with Shaykh Sulayman of 6 10 1975Google Scholar.

15 Interview with the qāḍi of 6 July 1975; al-'Ārif, 'Ārif, al-Qaḍā' bayn al-Bndw, Jerusalem, 1933, 130Google Scholar; Chelhod, , Le droit, 104Google Scholar. On the meaning of the term qaṣala see Bailey, Clinton, ‘Bedouin weddings in Sinai and the Negev’, Studies in Marriage Customs (Jerusalem), IV, 1974, pp. 113, n. 21, 114Google Scholar.

16 Lavish, , ‘Shari'a u-minhag’, 380 ff., 399Google Scholar; we are obliged to Dr. Clinton Bailey, who is doing research on legal maxims of the Sinai Bedouin, for helping us to form an opinion as to this question.

17 e.g. Division, Druze, Ministry of Religious Affairs, File DB/18 of 16 January1960, 19 01 1960Google Scholar; Druze Religious Court, Haifa, , falaq, File 42/67Google Scholar; Nafaqa, File 42/73; Mu'adï, Kamāl, ‘Shū'un al-ṭā'ifa al-Durziyya’, Majallat al-Akhbār al-Durziyya (Jerusalem), III, 3–4, 1968, 5Google Scholar; Layish, A., ‘Ma'amad ha-Islām ba-mishpaḥah ha-Drūzīt be- Yisra'el’, Ha-Mizraḥ he-Ḥadash, xxvi, 3–4, 1977, 152, 164 ff., 161, 199Google Scholar.

18 al-Dhuwayb, Muhammad Sālim 'Ashīrat al-Sharāyi'a al-Ta'amira, divorce of 25 09 1964Google Scholar; and Muhammad, Sulaymān Sālim 'Ashīrat Ṣalāh al-Ta'āmira, khul' of 10 12 1966Google Scholar, respectively. Cf. Chelhod, , Le droit, 85Google Scholar.

19 Schacht, , Origins, 98 ff.Google Scholar; idem, Introduction, 37, 46, 53, 69 f.

20 Interviews with him of 22 June 1975 and 14 Novembe r 1975.

21 e.g. Muḥammad, Sulaymān Sālim 'Ashirat Ṣalāh al-Ta'āmira, khvl' of 10 12 1966Google Scholar; Ibrahim, 'Abd Allāh al-Dar'āwi 'Ashirat al-Shawawira al-Ta'āmira, sanad tahklm of 15 08 1970Google Scholar.

22 Smith, W. Bobertson, Kinship and marriage in early Arabia, 1903Google Scholar, repr., Boston, Beacon Press, n.d., 92 ff., 112 ff.; Anderson, , Law reform, 10–11Google Scholar. For more detail on khul' see below, § 3, pp. 37–8.

23 e.g. al-Dhuwayb, Muḥammad Sālim ‘Ashīrat al-Sharāyi'a al-Ta'ānaira, divorce of 25 09 1964Google Scholar; interview with Shaykh Muḥammad Sālim al-Dhuway b of 14 November 1975; Muḥammad, Sulaymān Sālim 'Ashīrat Salāh al-Ta'āmira, khul' of 10 12 1966Google Scholar. Cf. Tyan, , Histoire, 64, 65Google Scholar; Schacht, , Introduction, 10, 11Google Scholar.

24 Nimr, 'Awda al-Mubārak 'Ashīrat al-Nabāhīn al-Ta'āmira, ṣalck taḥhīm of 29 09 1962Google Scholar; interview with Muḥammad, Shaykh Sulaymān Sālim 'Ashīrat Ṣalāḥ al-Ta'āmira of 15 07 1976Google Scholar.

25 Muhammad, Sulaymān Sālim 'Ashīrat Ṣalāḥ al-Ta'āmira, hhvV' of 10 12 1966Google Scholar. Cf. Tyan, , 'Ḥakam’, 72Google Scholar; idem, Histoire, 53–7, 60; Chelhod, , Le droit, 171 ff.Google Scholar, idem, ‘Le Bédouin’, 153 ff.

26 Interview with Shaykh Muḥammad Sālim al-Dhuwayb al-Sharāyi'a al-Ta'āmira of 14 November 1975.

27 Interviews with Muḥammad, Shaykh Sulaymān 'Ashīrat Salāh al-Ta'āmira and Shaykh Mūsā, 'Awdat Allāh al-'Ubaydiyya of 3 06 1975 and 6 October 1975Google Scholar. Cf. al-'Ārif, op. cit., 130; Bailey, art. cit., 114, 117; Kennett, A., Bedouin justice; law and customs among the Egyptian Bedouin, new impression, London, 1968, 100Google Scholar; Reuben Levy, The social structure of Islam, repr., Cambridge, 1962, 113. The pronouncement of the bismillāh and reading of the Fātiha are usual also among the Druzes, perhaps by way of taqiyya; see Tali', Amin Muhammad, Aṣl al-muwaḥḥidīn al-Durūz wa-uṣūluhum, Beirut, 1961, 132, 133Google Scholar.

28 Sharī'a Court of Jerusalem, Muḥammad Sharārī al-A'raj al-Sawahira, confirmation of marriage of 4 August 1956.

29 Coulson, N. J., Succession in the Muslim family, Cambridge, 1971, 11, 12CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schacht, , Introduction, 161, 162Google Scholar; Levy, 110, 111. For more detail see Zahra, Muḥammad Abū, al-Ahwal al-shakhṣiyya, Cairo, n.d., 123 fGoogle Scholar.

30 e.g. Mūsā 'Awdat Allāh al-'Ubaydiyya, certificate of marriage for presentation to the court, n.d.; marriage contract, Court of Bethlehem, No. 38426; Abū, Muḥammad Ahmad 'Āmiriyya 'Ashīrat al-Sharāyi'a al-Ta'āmira, obedience, n.d. Cf. al-'Arif, op. cit., 127 fGoogle Scholar.

31 interview with Muhammad, Ḥajj Mūsā 'Īd 'Ashīrat al-Sharāyi'a al-Ta'āmira of 3 06 1976Google Scholar.

32 Layish, A., Women and Islamic law in a non-Muslim state; a study based on decisions of the sharī'a courts in Israel, New York, 1975, 51Google Scholar; Chelhod, , Le droit, 125Google Scholar; Marx, Emanuel, Bedouin of the Negev, Manchester, 1967, 104, 105, 159Google Scholar; interview with Muḥammad, Shaykh Sulaymān Sālim 'Ashīrat Ṣalāh al-Ta'āmira of 6 10 1975Google Scholar.

33 Hasan, 'Ali Muḥammad Ḥamūlat al-Radāyida al-'Ubaydiyya, dower of 24 06 1940Google Scholar. Cf. al-'Arif, op. cit., 130 ff.; Kressel, Gideon M., ‘Bride-price reconsidered’, Current Anthropology, XVIII, 3, 1977, 450Google Scholar.

34 For more detail see Layish, , Women, 47Google Scholar, and the sources indicated there. Smith, Robertson, op. cit., 112Google Scholar. Cf. Chelhod, , ‘Le Bédouin’, 157–8Google Scholar.

35 e.g. Sharī'a Court of Bethlehem, , Sijill Ṭaläq 3, p. 59Google Scholar, nos. 3/75, 4/76. Interview with Shaykh al-Rifa'i of 19 May 1975. Cf. al-'Ārif, op. cit., 131, 132; Layish, , ‘Sharī'a u-minhag’, 383 ff.Google Scholar; Marx, , op. cit., 120, 121, 150, 160Google Scholar; Kressel, Gideon M., Pratiyūt le-'ūmat shivtiyūt: dinamiqah shel qehīlat Bedewim be-tahalīkh hit'ayrūt, Tel Aviv, 1976, 161, 162, 223, 224Google Scholar; Chelhod, , Le droit, 105, 106Google Scholar.

36 Layish, , Women, 159 ff.Google Scholar; Smith, Robertson, op. cit., 112, 113Google Scholar.

37 e.g. Muḥammad Aḥmad Abū 'Amiriyya 'Ashīrat al-Sharāyi'a al-Ta'āmira, marriage, n.d.; Muḥammad, Sulaymān Sālim 'Ashīrat Salāh al-Ta'āmira, family dispute of 9 07 1974Google Scholar; Ibrahim, 'Abd Allāh al-Dar'āwī 'Ashīrat al-Shawāwira al-Ta'āmira, family dispute of 26 08 1970Google Scholar; Muḥammad, Sulaymān Sālim 'Ashīrat Ṣalāh al-Ta'āmira, khul' of 10 12 1966Google Scholar and family dispute of 11 May 1972; interviews with Shaykh Muḥammad Sālim al-Dhuwayb of 14 November 1975 and Shaykh Sulaymān Sālim Muḥammad of 6 October 1975. Cf. Layish, , ‘Sharī'a u-minhag’, 386Google Scholar; Kressel, , Praṭiyut, 222Google Scholar.

38 al-Dhuwayb, Muḥammad Sālim 'Ashīrat al-Sharāyi'a al-Ta'āmira, divorce agreement of 29 06 1959Google Scholar and divorce of 25 September 1964. Cf. Smith, Robertson, op. cit., 113Google Scholar.

39 Layish, , ‘Shari'a u-minhag’, 386, 387Google Scholar; Anderson, J. N. D., Islamic law in Africa, new impression, London, 1970, 320, 321Google Scholar; idem, Law reform, 11; Coulson, , History, 136Google Scholar, and the source indicated there.

40 For more detail see Layish, , Women, 173Google Scholar.

41 Interviews with Ibrāhim, Shaykh 'Abd Allāh al-Dar'awī and Shaykh Sulaymān Sālim Muḥammad of 5 08 1975Google Scholar, 6 October 1975, and 3 June 1975. See Layish, , ‘Shari'a u-minhag’, 382, 383, 387, 388Google Scholar. Cf. Chelhod, , Le droit, 130Google Scholar.

42 Layish, , Women, 279Google Scholar, and the sources indicated there; Smith, Robertson, op. cit., 65 ffGoogle Scholar.

43 Muḥammad, Sulaymān Salim 'Ashīrat Ṣalāḥ al-Ta'āmira, succession of 10 01 1955Google Scholar; Yusuf, 'Aṭiyya ‘Alayān al-'Ubaydiyya, disposition of estate inter vivos of 4 10 1962Google Scholar; and Ibrajiyya, Maḥmūd Musallim 'Ashīrat al-Zawāhira al-Ta'āmira, disposition of estate inter vivos of A.H. 1331 [1912]Google Scholar, respectively. Cf. Layish, , Women, 105Google Scholar; Marx, , op. cit, 185, 186Google Scholar; Kennett, , op. cit., 99, 104, 106Google Scholar; Chelhod, , Le droit, 134–6Google Scholar; Baer, , Population, 39Google Scholar, and the sources indicated there.

44 Rizq, Rizq al-Sa'id 'Ashīrat al-Shawāwira al-Ta'āmira, hasr irth of 18 11 1954Google Scholar. Cf. al-'Ārif, , op. oit., 126Google Scholar; Chelhod, , Le droit, 136Google Scholar.

46 Muḥammad, Sharārī al-A'raj al-Sawāḥira, waṣl tanāzul of 29 05 1956Google Scholar. Cf. Lavish, , Women, 290 f.Google Scholar; Anderson, , Law reform, 11Google Scholar.

46 Dakhl, Aḥmad Allāh al-Makhṭūb al-Mis'ād al-Ta'āmira, wasiyya of 29 05 1956Google Scholar. Cf. Lavish, A., ‘Women and succession in the Druze family in Israel’, Asian and African Studies, XI, 1, 1976, 111Google Scholar.

47 'Īd Jum'a al-Dhuwayb, Sulayman 'Ashīrat al-Sharāyi'a al-Ta'āmira, waṣiyyat irth of 27 04 1975Google Scholar. Interviews with Muḥammad, Shaykh Salim al-Dhuwayb of 29 12 1975Google Scholar and with Muḥammad, Shaykh Sulaymān Sālim ‘Ashīrat Ṣalāh of 29 12 1975Google Scholar. Cf. Layish, , ‘Women and succession’, 111Google Scholar. Cf., as against this, Layish, , Women, 292 fGoogle Scholar.

48 For more detail, see Layish, , ‘Shari'a u-minhag’, 377–8Google Scholar, and the sources indicated there.

49 e.g. Sulaymān Sālim Muḥammad 'Ashīrat Ṣalāḥ al-Ta'āmira and Ibrahim, 'Abd Allāh al-Dar'āwi ‘Ashīrat al-Shawāwira al-Ta'āmira, family dispute of 11 05 1972Google Scholar; Muḥammad, Sālim Isma'īl Abū ‘Ulyā 'Ashīrat al-'Abayāt al-Ta'āmira, succession of 10 01 1955Google Scholar; Ibrajiyya, Maḥmud Musallim 'Ashīrat al-Ẓawāhira al-Ta'āmira, disposition of estate inter vivos of A.H. 1331 [1912]Google Scholar. The Qur'ān quotations are from the translation by Pickthall, Mohammed Marmaduke, The meaning of the glorious Koran, New York, New American Library, 1953Google Scholar.

50 Danūn, Muḥammadmukhtār 'Ashīrat al-Danūn al-Ta'āmira, family dispute of 9 07 1974Google Scholar; Sulaymān Sālim Muḥammad 'Ashlrat Ṣalāḥ al-Ta'āmira, impotence, n.d.; idem, khul' of 10 December 1966.

51 Danūn, Muḥammadmukhtār 'Ashīrat al-Danūn al-Ta'āmira, family dispute of 9 07 1974Google Scholar; Muḥammad, Sulaymān Sālim 'Ashīrat Ṣalāḥ al-Ta'āmira, family dispute of 11 05 1972Google Scholar; idem, impotence, n.d.; Ibrāhīm, 'Abd Allāh al-Dar'āwi 'Ashīrat al-Shawāwira al-Ta'āmira, family dispute of 26 08 1970Google Scholar; Muḥammad, Sharāri al-A'raj al-Sawahira, wasl tandzul of 29 05 1956Google Scholar; Sālim, Muḥammad al-Dhuwayb al-Sharāyi'a al-Ta'āmira, waṣiyyat irth of 27 04 1975Google Scholar; idem, khul' of 25 09 September 1964.

52 Tyan, , Hisloire, 35, 42, 43, 59, 61Google Scholar; Schacht, , Introduction, 8, 10Google Scholar.

53 For more detail see Andrae, Tor, Muhammad—the man and his faith, New York, 1960, 24 ff.Google Scholar; Goitein, S. D., Ha-Islām shel Muḥammad: keitzad hithawetah dot ḥadashah be-tzel ha- Yahadūt, Jerusalem, 1956, 92, 93Google Scholar; Gabrieli, F., Muḥammad and the conquest of Islam, London, 1968, 40Google Scholar; Gardet, L., art. ‘Allah’, El, second ed., 406Google Scholar; Henninger, , art. cit., 133 ff., 139Google Scholar, and the sources indicated there.

54 Muḥammad, Sulaymān Sālim 'Ashīrat Ṣalāḥ al-Ta'āmira, family dispute of 11 05 1972Google Scholar; idem, sakk tabkim of 11 May 1972.

55 Muḥammad Aḥmad Abu 'Amiriyya 'Ashīrat al-Sharāyi'a al-Ta'āmira, marriage, n.d.

56 Muḥammad, Sulaymān Sālim 'Ashīrat Ṣalāḥ al-Ta'āmira, khul' of 10 12 1966Google Scholar. Article 30 of the law, which deals with obedience, is based on Hanafi variants. See Anderson, J. N. D., ‘Recent developments in sharī'a law VIII. The Jordanian Law of Family Rights, 1951’ Muslim World, XLII, 3, 1952, 196Google Scholar.

57 Rizq, al-Sa'īd Rizq al-Shawāwira al-Ta'āmira, basr irth of 18 11 1954Google Scholar; al-Dhuwayb, Muḥammad Sālim ‘Ashīrat al-Sharāyi'a al-Ta'āmira, wasiyyat irth of 27 04 1975Google Scholar. Cf. Coulson, , Succession, 216, 217Google Scholar.

58 Nimr, 'Awda al-Mubārak 'Ashīrat al-Nabāhīn al-Ta'āmira, sakk tabkīm of 29 09 1963Google Scholar; Ibrahim, 'Abd Allāh al-Dar'awi 'Ashīrat al-Shawāwira al-Ta'āmira, family dispute of 26 08 1970Google Scholar.

59 Muḥammad, Sulaymān Sālim 'Ashīrat Ṣalāḥ al-Ta'āmira, khul' of 10 12 1966Google Scholar; idem, family dispute of 11 may 1972.

60 Sharī'a Court of Bethlehem, , Sijill Ṭalāq 3, p. 176Google Scholar, no. 13 (ibrā'); Muḥammad, Sulaymān Sālim 'Ashīrat Sālah al-Ta'āmira, ibrā' of 20 10 1974Google Scholar; idem, khvl' of 10 December 1966; Ibrāhīm, 'Abd Allāh al-Dar'āwi 'Ashīrat al-Shawāwira al-Ta'āmira, family dispute of 26 08 1970Google Scholar.

61 Tyan, , Histoire, 50, 56, 57, 60, 61Google Scholar; idem, ‘Ḥakam’, 72; Schacht, , Introduction, 189Google Scholar; Shaykh Muḥammad Sa'id Jamāl al-Rifā'i, wakīl qāḍi of Bethlehem, thinks that an arbitral award is not binding and requires confirmation by the qāḍi in each case (interview of 16 October 1975).

62 Sulaymān Sālim Muḥammad 'Ashīrat Ṣalāḥ al-Ta'āmira, impotence, n.d.

63 Interview with Muḥammad, Shaykh Sālim al-Dhuwayb of 14 11 1975Google Scholar.

64 cf. Schacht, , Introduction, 62, 77, 78, 84Google Scholar; Bousquet, G.-H., ‘Āda’, El, second ed., 170, 171Google Scholar; Anderson, , Law reform, 188Google Scholar.