Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T14:17:05.541Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Ideology as Rationalization and as Self-Righteousness: Psychology and Law as Paths to Critical Business Ethics

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 January 2015

Wayne Eastman
Wayne Eastman*
Affiliation:
Rutgers University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract:

Research on political ideology in law and psychology can be fruitfully applied to the question of whether business ethics is ideological, and, if so, what response is warranted. I suggest that legal and psychological research streams can be drawn upon to create a new genre of critical business ethics that differs from normative and empirical business ethics. In psychology, Moral Foundations Theory (MFT) suggests how the mainstream ideology within an academic field can be criticized as a reflection of a self-righteous, us-them mind-set. In law, Critical Legal Studies (CLS) suggests how a field’s mainstream ideology can be criticized as a rationalization of the status quo. I suggest that the MFT and CLS criticisms of ideology can be joined to develop a critical approach to business ethics that seriously examines science on normatively charged topics, such as liberal-conservative differences and implicit attitudes, and that frames it in terms of alternative narratives.

Keywords

ideologycritical business ethicsMoral Foundations TheoryCritical Legal Studies
Type
Articles
Information
Business Ethics Quarterly , Volume 23 , Issue 4 , October 2013 , pp. 527 - 560
Copyright
Copyright © Society for Business Ethics 2013

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. 2012. Why nations fail: The origins of power, prosperity, and poverty. New York: Crown Business.Google Scholar
Adorno, T.W. 2005 (orig. 1951). Minima moralia: Reflections on a damaged life. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Adorno, D., & Robinson, T.W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, D.J., & Sanford, R.N. 1950. The Authoritarian Personality. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
Altman, A. 1990. Critical legal studies: A liberal critique. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alvesson, M., & Willmott, H. 1992. Critical management studies. New York: Sage.Google Scholar
Alvesson, M., & Willmott, H. 2003. Studying management critically. New York: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anghie, A. 2008. TWAIL: Past and future. International Community Law Review, 10: 479–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187197308X36663CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ayres, I. 2003. Pervasive prejudice? Unconventional evidence of race and gender discrimination. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Ayres, I., & Brown, J.G. 2005. Straightforward: Mobilizing heterosexual support for gay rights. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Balbus, I.D. 1977. Commodity form and legal form: An essay on the “relative autonomy” of the law. Law & Society Review, 11: 571–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3053132CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banaji, M.R., Bazerman, M.H., & Chugh, D. 2003. How (un)ethical are you? Harvard Business Review, 81: 3–10.Google Scholar
Banaji, M.R., & Greenwald, A. 2013. Blindspot: Hidden biases of good people. New York: Delacorte Press.Google Scholar
Bell, D. 1987. And we are not saved: The elusive quest for racial justice. New York: Basic Books.Google ScholarPubMed
Bell, D. 1992. Racial realism. Connecticut Law Review, 24: 363–79.Google Scholar
Bell, D. 2000 (orig. 1960). The end of ideology: On the exhaustion of political ideas in the fifties (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Boehm, C. 1999. A Hierarchy in the forest: The evolution of egalitarian behavior. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braithwaite, V. 2009. The value balance model and democratic governance. Psychological Inquiry, 20: 87–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10478400903028367CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brief, A.P. 2012. The good, the bad, and the ugly: What behavioral business ethics researchers ought to be studying. In De Cremer, D. and Tenbrunsel, A. (Eds.), Behavioral business ethics: Shaping an emerging field. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Brooks, A. 2007. Who really cares. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Brooks, A. 2008. Gross national happiness. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Brooks, A. 2010. The battle: How the fight between free enterprise and big government will shape America’s future. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Carney, D.R., Jost, J.T., Gosling, S.D., & Potter, J. 2008. The secret lives of liberals and conservatives: Personality profiles, interaction styles, and the things they leave behind. Political Psychology, 29: 807–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00668.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrington, P.D. 1984. Of law and the river. Journal of Legal Education, 34: 222–28.Google Scholar
Chang, R. 1993. Toward an Asian American legal scholarship: Critical race theory, post-structuralism, and narrative space. California Law Review, 81: 1241–1322. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3480919CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choma, B.L., Busseri, M.A., & Sadava, S.W. 2009. Liberal and conservative political ideologies: Different routes to happiness? Journal of Research in Personality, 43: 502–05. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2008.12.016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, T.N., & Lipset, S.M. 2001. The breakdown of class politics: A debate on postindustrial stratification. Princeton, NJ: Woodrow Wilson Center Press.Google Scholar
Crane, A., Knights, D., & Starkey, K. 2008. The conditions of our freedom: Foucault, organization, and ethics. Business Ethics Quarterly, 18: 299–320. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq200818324CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crenshaw, K. 1991. Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43: 1241–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1229039CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Cremer, D., van Dijk, E., & Pillutla, M.M. 2010. Explaining unfair offers in ultimatum games and their effects on trust: An experimental approach. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20: 107–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq20102018CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delgado, R. 1984. The imperial scholar: Reflections on a review of civil rights literature. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 132: 561–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3311882CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delgado, R. 1995. The Rodrigo chronicles: Conversations about America and race. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Delgado, R., & Stefancic, J. (Eds.). 1998. The Latino/a condition: A critical reader. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Donaldson, T., & Dunfee, T. 1999. The ties that bind: A social contracts approach to business ethics. Boston: Harvard Business Review Press.Google Scholar
Durkheim, E. 2010 Suicide (Spalding, J.A., & Simpson, G., Trans.). New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Dworkin, R. 1977. Taking rights seriously. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Eastman, W. 1996a. “Everything’s up for grabs”: The Coasean story in game-theoretic terms. New England Law Review, 31: 1–38.Google Scholar
Eastman, W. 1996b. How Coasean bargaining entails a prisoners’ dilemma. Notre Dame Law Review, 76: 89–102.Google Scholar
Eastman, W. 2000. Critical legal studies. In Bouckaert, B. & De Geest, G. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of law and economics, vol. 1: The history and methodology of law and economics, 754–89. Cheltenham: United Kingdom: Edward Elgar.Google Scholar
Eastman, W., & Santoro, M. 2003 The importance of value diversity in corporate life. Business Ethics Quarterly, 13: 433–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq200313431CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farber, D.A., & Sherry, S. 1997. Beyond all reason: The radical assault on truth in American law. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feinman, J.M. 1984 Promissory estoppel and judicial method. Harvard Law Review. Business Ethics Quarterly, 97: 678–718. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1340893Google Scholar
Feygina, I., Jost, J.T., & Goldsmith, R. 2010 System justification, the denial of global warming, and the possibility of “system-sanctioned change.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36: 326–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167209351435CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fineman, M. 1988 Dominant discourse, professional language, and legal change in child custody decision-making. Harvard Law Review, 101: 727–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1341172CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fineman, M.A., Jackson, J.E., & Romero, A.P. (Eds.). 2009. Feminist and queer legal theory: Intimate encounters, uncomfortable conversations. London: Ashgate.Google Scholar
Fischl, R.M. 1992. The question that killed critical legal studies. Law & Social Inquiry, 17: 779–820. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-4469.1992.tb00640.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiske, A.P. 1991. Structures of social life. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick, P., & Hunt, A. 1987. Critical Legal Studies. London: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Frank, J. 2004 (orig. 1930). Law and the modern mind. Edison, NJ: Transaction.Google Scholar
Frank, T. 2004. What’s the Matter with Kansas? How Conservatives Won the Heart of America. New York: Henry Holt and Co.Google Scholar
Freeman, A.D. 1977. Legitimizing racial discrimination through antidiscrimination law: A critical review of Supreme Court doctrine. Minnesota Law Review, 62: 1049–1119.Google Scholar
Freeman, R.E. 1984. Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston: Pitman.Google Scholar
Freeman, R.E. 1994. The politics of stakeholder theory: Some future directions. Business Ethics Quarterly, 4: 409–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3857340CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Freeman, R.E., & Phillips, R.A. 2002. Stakeholder theory: A libertarian defense. Business Ethics Quarterly, 12: 331–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3858020CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Friedman, M. 1970. The social responsibility of business is to increase its profits. New York Times Magazine (September 13).Google Scholar
Frug, G.E. 1980. The city as a legal concept. Harvard Law Review, 93: 1059–1154. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1340702CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frug, M.J. 1992. Postmodern legal feminism. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Garcia, S.M., Bazerman, M.H., Kopelman, S, Tor, A., & Miller, D.T. 2010. The price of equality: Suboptimal resource allocations across social categories. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20: 75–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq20102016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gathii, J.T. 2011. TWAIL: A brief history of its origins, its decentralized network, and a tentative bibliography. Trade law and development, 3: 26–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1340702Google Scholar
Geuss, R. 1981. The idea of a critical theory: Habermas and the Frankfurt School. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gilligan, C. 1982. In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Goodpaster, K.E. 1985. Business ethics, ideology, and the naturalistic fallacy. Journal of Business Ethics, 4: 227–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00381763CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodric, P. 1992. Critical legal studies in England: Prospective histories. Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, 12: 195–236. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ojls/12.2.195CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gordon, R.W. 1984. Critical Legal Histories. Stanford Law Review, 36: 57–126. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1228681CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gouldner, A.W. 1980. The two Marxisms: Contradictions and anomalies in the development of theory. New York: Seabury Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, J., Haidt, J., Koleva, S., Motyl, M., Iyer, R., Wojcik, S., & Ditto, P.H. 2013. Moral Foundations Theory: The pragmatic validity of moral pluralism. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 47: 55–130. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-407236-7.00002-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Nosek, B. 2009. Liberals and conservatives rely on different sets of moral foundations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96: 1029–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0015141CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graham, J., Haidt, J., & Rimm-Kaufman, S.E. 2008. Ideology and intuition in moral education. European Journal of Developmental Science, 2: 269–86.Google Scholar
Graham, J., Nosek, B.A., & Haidt, J. 2012. The moral stereotypes of liberals and conservatives: Exaggeration of differences across the political spectrum. PLoS ONE 7(12): e50092. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050092Google ScholarPubMed
Greenwald, A.G., McGhee, D.E., & Schwartz, J.K.L. 1998. Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74: 1464–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haidt, J. 2001. The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108: 814–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.4.814CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haidt, J. 2007. The new synthesis in moral psychology. Science, 316: 998–1002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1137651CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Haidt, J. 2008. TED talk: The moral roots of liberals and conservatives. http://www.ted.com/talks/jonathan_haidt_on_the_moral_mind.htmlGoogle Scholar
Haidt, J. 2011. Edge talk: The bright future of post-partisan social psychology. http://www.edge.org/conversation/the-bright-future-of-post-partisan-social-psychology.Google Scholar
Haidt, J. 2012. The righteous mind: Why good people are divided by politics and religion. New York: Pantheon.Google Scholar
Haidt, J., Bjorklund, F., & Murphy, S. 2000. Moral dumbfounding: When intuition finds no reason. Unpublished manuscript, University of Virginia, Charlottesville.Google Scholar
Haidt, J., & Graham, J. 2007. When morality opposes justice: Conservatives have moral intuitions that liberals may not recognize. Social Justice Research, 20: 98–116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11211-007-0034-zCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haidt, J., & Graham, J. 2009. Planet of the Durkheimians, Where community, authority, and sacredness are foundations of morality. In Jost, J., Kay, A.C., & Thorisdottir, H. (Eds.), Social and Psychological Bases of Ideology and System Justification. New York: Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195320916.003.015Google Scholar
Haidt, J., Graham, J., & Joseph, C. 2009. Above and below left-right: Ideological narratives and moral foundations. Psychological Inquiry, 20: 110–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10478400903028573CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haidt, J., & Hersh, M. 2001. Sexual morality: The cultures and emotions of conservatives and liberals. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31: 191–221. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb02489.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haidt, J., & Joseph, C. 2004. Intuitive ethics: How innately prepared intuitions generate culturally variable virtues. Journal of Applied Social Psychology: 55–66, special issue on human nature. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/0011526042365555Google Scholar
Haidt, J., & Joseph, C. 2007. The moral mind: How 5 sets of innate moral intuitions guide the development of many culture-specific virtues, and perhaps even modules. In Carruthers, P., Laurence, S., and Stich, S. (Eds.) The innate mind, vol. 3, 367–91. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Haidt, J., & Joseph, C. 2011. How moral foundations theory succeeded in building on sand: A response to Suhler and Churchland. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23: 2117–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2011.21638CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haidt, J., & Kesebir, S. 2010. Morality. In Fiske, S., Gilbert, D., & Lindzey, G. (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (5th edition), 797–832. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Haidt, J., Koller, S., & Dias, M. 1993. Affect, culture, and morality, or is it wrong to eat your dog? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65: 613–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.65A613CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hale, R.L. 1923. Coercion and distribution in a supposedly non-coercive state. Political Science Quarterly, 38: 470–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2142367CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halley, J. 2006. Split decisions: How and why to take a break from feminism: Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Harris, A.P. 1990. Race and essentialism in feminist legal theory. Stanford Law Review, 42: 581–616. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1228886CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hart, H.M., & Sacks, A. 1985 (tentative edition 1958). Split decisions: How and why to take a break from feminism: Princeton, NJ: Minneapolis: West.Google Scholar
Henrich, J., Heine, S.J., & Norenzayan, A. 2010. The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33: 61–135. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152XCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Horkheimer, M., & Adorno, T.W. 2002 (orig. 1947). Dialectic of enlightenment: Philosophical fragments. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Hume, D. 1960 (orig. 1777). An enquiry concerning morals. LaSalle, IL: Open Court.Google Scholar
Hume, D. 2003 (orig. 1739). A treatise of human nature. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Iglesias, E.M., & Valdes, F. 1998. Afterword: Religion, gender, sexuality, race, and class in coalitional theory: A critical and self-critical analysis of Latcrit social justice agendas. Chicano-Latino Law Review, 19: 503–65.Google Scholar
Inglehart, R. 1977. The silent revolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Inglehart, R. 1990. Culture shift in advanced industrial societies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iyer, R., Graham, J., Koleva, S., Ditto, P., & Haidt, J. 2010. Beyond identity politics: Moral psychology and the 2008 Democratic primary. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 10: 293–306. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-2415.2010.01203.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iyer, R., Koleva, S., Graham, J., Ditto, P.H., & Haidt, J. 2012. Understanding libertarian morality: The psychological dispositions of self-identified libertarians. PLoS ONE, 7, e42366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0042366Google ScholarPubMed
Janoff-Bulman, R. 2009. To provide or protect: Motivational bases of political liberalism and conservatism. Psychological Inquiry, 20: 120–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10478400903028581CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jay, M. 1974. The dialectical imagination. New York: Heinemann Educational Books.Google Scholar
Jensen, M.C., & Meckling, W.H. 1976. Theory of the firm, managerial behavior, agency costs, and ownership structure. Journal of Financial Economics, 3, 305–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-405X(76)90026-XCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson, K.R., & Martinez, G.A. 1999. Crossover dreams: The roots of LatCrit theory in Chicana/o studies activism and scholarship. University of Miami Law Review, 53: 1143–95. Google Scholar
Johnson, P.E. 1984. Do you sincerely want to be radical? Stanford Law Review, 36: 247–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1228684CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jorgensen, G. 2006. Kohlberg and Gilligan: Duet or duel? Journal of Moral Education, 35(2): 179–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03057240600681710CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jost, J.T. 2006. The end of the end of ideology. American Psychologist, 61(7): 651–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.7.651CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jost, J.T. 2009. “Elective affinities”: On the psychological bases of left-right differences. Psychological Inquiry, 20: 129–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10478400903028599CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jost, J.T. 2011. System justification theory as compliment, complement, and corrective to theories of social identification and social dominance. In Dunning, D. (Ed.), Social motivation, 223–63. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Jost, J.T., & Amodio, D.M. 2012. Political ideology as motivated social cognition: Behavioral and neuroscientific evidence. Motivation and Emotion, 36: 55–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11031-011-9260-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jost, J.T., & Banaji, M.R. 1994. The role of stereotyping in system-justification and the production of false consciousness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33: 1–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8309.1994.tb01008.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jost, J.T., Banaji, M.R., & Nosek, B.A. 2004. A decade of system justification theory: Accumulated evidence of conscious and unconscious bolstering of the status quo. Political Psychology, 25: 881–920. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2004.00402.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jost, J.T., Federico, C.M., & Napier, J.L. 2009. Political ideology: Its structure, functions, and elective affinities. Annual Review of Psychology: 307–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163600CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jost, J.T., Glaser, J., Kruglanski, A.W. & Sulloway, F. 2003. Political conservatism as motivated social cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 129: 339–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.339CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jost, J.T., Napier, J.L., Thorisdottir, H., Gosling, S.D., Palfai, T.P., & Ostafin, B. 2007. Are needs to manage uncertainty and threat associated with political conservatism or ideological extremity? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33: 989–1007. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167207301028CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jost, J.T., Rudman, L.A., Blair, I.V., Carney, D.R., Dasgupta, N., Glaser, J., & Hardin, C.D. 2009a. The existence of implicit bias is beyond reasonable doubt: A refutation of ideological and methodological objections and executive summary of ten studies that no manager should ignore. Research in Organizational Behavior, 29: 39–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2009.10.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jost, J.T., Rudman, L.A., Blair, I.V., Carney, D.R., Dasgupta, N., Glaser, J., & Hardin, C.D. 2009b. An invitation to Tetlock and Mitchell to conduct empirical research on implicit bias with friends, “adversaries,” or whomever they please. Research in Organizational Behavior, 28: 73–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016Zj.riob.2009.06.009CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jost, J.T., & van der Toorn, J. 2012. System justification theory. In van Lange, P.A.M., Kruglanski, A.W., & Higgins, E.T. (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology, vol. 2, 313–43. London: Sage. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n42CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahan, D.M. 2007. The cognitively illiberal state. Stanford Law Review, 60: 115–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016Zj.riob.2009.06.009Google Scholar
Kahan, D.M. 2011. The Supreme Court term-Foreword: Neutral principles, motivated cognition, and some problems for constitutional law. Harvard Law Review, 125: 1–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016Zj.riob.2009.06.009Google Scholar
Kahan, D.M., Hoffman, D.A., Braman, D., Evans, D., & Rachlinski, J. 2012. “They Saw a Protest”: Cognitive Illiberalism and the Speech-Conduct Distinction. Stanford Law Review, 64.Google Scholar
Kelman, M.G. 1984. Trashing. Stanford Law Review, 36: 293–348. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1228685CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelman, M.G. 1987. A Guide to Critical Legal Studies. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Kennedy, D. 1976. Form and substance in private law adjudication. Harvard Law Review, 89: 1685–1776. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1340104CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, D. 1979. The Structure of Blackstone”s Commentaries. Buffalo Law Review, 28: 205–382.Google Scholar
Kennedy, D. 1983. Legal education and the reproduction of hierarchy. Journal of Legal Education, 33: 591–615.Google Scholar
Kennedy, D. 1986. Freedom & constraint in adjudication: A critical phenomenology. Journal of Legal Education, 36: 518–62.Google Scholar
Kennedy, D. 1995. Sexy dressing etc.: Essays on the power and politics of cultural identity. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Kennedy, D. 1997. A critique of adjudication. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Kennedy, D., & Gabel, P. 1984. Roll over Beethoven. Stanford Law Review, 36: 1–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1228680Google Scholar
Kennedy, D., & Michelman, F. 1980. Are property and contract efficient? Hofstra Law Review, 8: 711–70.Google Scholar
Kennedy, Da. 2004. The dark sides of virtue: Reassessing international humanitarianism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kennedy, R. 1989. Racial critiques of legal academia. Harvard Law Review, 102: 1745–1819. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1341357CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, L.T. 2008. Getting class. Buffalo Law Review, 56: 917–36.Google Scholar
Kim, T.W., & Strudler, A. 2012. Workplace civility: A Confucian approach. Business Ethics Quarterly, 22: 557–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq201222334CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koestler, A. 1940. Darkness at noon. New York: Modern Library.Google Scholar
Kohlberg, L. 1958. The development of modes of thinking and choices in years 10 to 16. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Kohlberg, L. 1969. Stages and sequences: The cognitive development approach to socialization. In Goslin, D.A. (Ed.), Handbook of socialization theory of research, 347–80. Chicago: Rand McNally.Google Scholar
Kohlberg, L. 1971. From is to ought: How to commit the naturalistic fallacy and get away with it in the study of moral development. In Mischel, T. (Ed.), Cognitive development and psychology, 151–235. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kohlberg, L. 1981. Essays on moral development, vol. 1: The philosophy of moral development. San Francisco: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Koleva, S.P., Graham, J., Ditto, P., Iyer, R., & Haidt, J. 2012. Tracing the threads: How five moral concerns (especially purity) help explain culture war attitudes. Journal of Research in Personality, 46: 184–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/jjrp.2012.01.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kornhauser, L.A. 1984. Great image of authority. Stanford Law Review, 36: 349–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1228686CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levit, N. 2000. A different kind of sameness: Beyond formal equality and antisubordination principles in gay legal theory and constitutional doctrine. Ohio State Law Journal, 61: 867–960.Google Scholar
Lewis, G.J., & Bates, T.C. 2011. From left to right: How the personality system allows basic traits to influence politics via characteristic moral adaptation. British Journal of Psychology, 102: 546–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.2011.02016.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lipset, S.M. 1960. Political man: The Social bases of politics. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Llewellyn, K. 1930. The bramble bush. New York: Oceana.Google Scholar
Lodge, G.C. 1982. The connection between ethics and ideology. Journal ofBusiness Ethics, 1: 85–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacIntyre, A. 1981. After virtue. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar
MacKinnon, C.A. 1982. Feminism, Marxism, method, and the state: An agenda for theory. Signs, 7: 515–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/493898CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacKinnon, C.A. 1988. Feminism unmodified: Discourses on life and law. Cambridge, MA; Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Mäkinen, J., & Kourula, R. 2012. Pluralism in political corporate social responsibility. Business Ethics Quarterly, 22: 649–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq201222443CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mannheim, K. 1997 (orig. 1936). Ideology and utopia. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Marcuse, H. 1969. An essay on liberation. Boston: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Marx, K. 1998 (orig. 1844). The German ideology, including theses on Feuerbach. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.Google Scholar
Matsuda, M. 1991. Beside my sister, facing the enemy: Legal theory out of coalition. Stanford Law Review, 43: 1183–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1229035CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matsuda, M. 2001. Planet Asian America. Asian Law Journal, 8: 169–86.Google Scholar
Maynard Smith, J., & Price, G.R. 1973. The logic of animal conflict. Nature, 246: 15–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/246015a0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCarty, N., Poole, K.T., & Rosenthal, H. 2006. Polarized America: Ideology and the dance of unequal riches. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
McFerran, B., Aquino, K. & Duffy, M. 2010. How personality and moral identity relate to individuals’ ethical ideology. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20: 35–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq20102014CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Menkel-Meadow, C. 1988. Feminist legal theory, critical legal studies, and legal education, or the “fem-crits go to law school.” Journal of Legal Education, 38: 61–86.Google Scholar
Mutua, A.D. 2008. Introducing ClassCrits: From class blindness to a critical legal analysis of economic inequality. Buffalo Law Review, 56: 859–916.Google Scholar
Napier, J.L., & Jost, J.T. 2008. Why are conservatives happier than liberals? Psychological Science, 19: 565–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02124.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nozick, R. 1981. Philosophical explanations. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Olsen, F.E. 1983. The family and the market: A study of ideology and legal reform. Harvard Law Review, 96: 1497–1578. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1340916CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Painter-Moreland, M., & Werhane, P. (Eds.). 2008. Cutting-edge issues in business ethics: Continental challenges to tradition. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Pinker, S. 2011. The better angels of our nature: Why violence has declined. New York: Viking.Google Scholar
Porter, M.E., & Kramer, M.R. 2011. Creating shared value: How to reinvent capitalism—and unleash a wave of innovation and growth. Harvard Business Review, 89: 62–77.Google Scholar
Posner, R.A. 1993. The problems of jurisprudence. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Posner, R.A. 2005. Law, pragmatism, and democracy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, R.A. 2007 (orig. 1973). Economic analysis of law (7th ed.). New York: Aspen.Google Scholar
Posner, R.A. 2010. How judges think. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Project Implicit. https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/.Google Scholar
Rankin, L., Jost, J.T., & Wakslak, C.J. 2009. System justification and the meaning of life: Are the existential benefits of ideology distributed unevenly across racial groups? Social Justice Research, 22: 312–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11211-009-0100-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds, S., Leavitt, K., & DeCelles, K.A. 2010. Automatic ethics: The effects of implicit assumptions and contextual cues on moral behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95: 752–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0019411CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sadler-Smith, E. 2012. Before virtue: Biology, brain, behavior, and the “Moral Sense.” Business Ethics Quarterly, 22: 351–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.5840/beq201222223CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sartre, J.P. 2010 (orig. 1942). Being and nothingness (H. E. Barnes, Trans.). New York: Open Road Media.Google Scholar
Scherer, A., & Palazzo, G. 2007. Toward a political conception of corporate social responsibility: Business and society seen from a Habermasian perspective. Academy of Management Review, 32: 1096–1120. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2007.26585837CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scherer, A., & Palazzo, G. 2008. Globalization and corporate social responsibility. In Crane, A., Mc-Williams, A., Matten, D., Moon, J., & Siegel, D. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of corporate social responsibility, 413–31. New York: Oxford University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199211593.003.0018Google Scholar
Schlegel, J.H. 1984. Notes toward an intimate, opinionated, and affectionate history of the conference on critical legal studies. Stanford Law Review, 36: 391–412. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1228687CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schumpeter, J. 1942. Capitalism, socialism, and democracy. New York: Harper & Row.Google Scholar
Schwartz, L.B. 1984. With gun and camera through darkest CLS-land. Stanford Law Review, 36: 413–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1228688CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shils, E.A. 1954. Authoritarianism: “Right” and “left.” In Christie, R., & Jahoda, M. (Eds.), Studies in the scope and method of “the authoritarian personality.” Glencoe, IL: Free PressGoogle Scholar
Shweder, R. 1991. Thinking through cultures: Expeditions in cultural psychology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. 1999. Social Dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. New York: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139175043CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sparer, E. 1984. Fundamental human rights, legal entitlements, and the social struggle: A friendly critique of the critical legal studies movement. Stanford Law Review, 36: 509–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1228691CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suhler, C.L., & Churchland, P. 2011. Can innate, modular “foundations” explain morality? Challenges for Haidt”s moral foundations theory. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23: 2103–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2011.21637CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sunstein, C.R. 1996. Judicial reasoning and political conflict. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunstein, C.R. 2002a. Designing democracy: What constitutions do. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Sunstein, C.R. 2002b. The law of group polarization. Journal of Political Philosophy, 10: 175–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9760.00148CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunstein, C.R. 2007. Republic.com 2.0. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Sunstein, C.R. 2009. Going to extremes: How like minds unite and divide. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J.C. 1979. An integrative theory of intergroup conflict: The social psychology of intergroup relations. In Austin, W.G., & Worchel, S. (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations.” Monterey, CA: Brooks-ColeGoogle Scholar
Teles, S.M. 2008. The rise of the conservative legal movement: The battle for control of the law. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tetlock, P.E., & Mitchell, G. 2009a. Adversarial collaboration aborted but our offer still stands. Research in Organizational Behavior, 28: 77–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2009.06.012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tetlock, P.E., & Mitchell, G. 2009b. Implicit bias and accountability systems: What must organizations do to prevent discrimination? Research in Organizational Behavior, 28: 3–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2009.10.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tetlock, P.E., & Mitchell, G. 2009c. A renewed appeal for adversarial collaboration. Research in Organizational Behavior, 28: 71–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2009.06.011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thorisdottir, H., & Jost, J.T. 2011. Motivated closed-mindedness mediates the effect of threat on political conservatism. Political Psychology, 32: 785–811. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2011.00840.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tooby, J., & Cosmides, L. 1992. The psychological foundations of culture. In Barkow, J.H., Cosmides, L., & Tooby, J. (Eds.), The adapted mind: Evolutionary psychology and the generation of culture, 19–136New York: Oxford University PressCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treviño, L.K., & Weaver, G. 2003. Managing ethics in business organizations: A social scientific perspective. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Trivers, R.L. 1971. The evolution of reciprocal altruism. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 46: 35–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/406755CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trubek, D.M. 1984. Where the action is: Critical legal studies and empiricism. Stanford Law Review, 36: 575–622. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1228692CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turiel, E. 1983. The development of social knowledge: Morality and convention. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tushnet, M.V. 1983. Following the rules laid down: A critique of interpretivism and neutral principles. Harvard Law Review, 96: 781–827. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1340904CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tushnet, M.V. 1984a. Critical legal studies and constitutional law: An essay in deconstruction. Stanford Law Review, 36: 623–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1228693CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tushnet, M.V. 1984b. An essay on rights. Texas Law Review, 62: 1363–1404.Google Scholar
Tushnet, M.V. 1992 The degradation of constitutional discourse. Georgetown Law Journal, 81: 251–78.Google Scholar
Unger, R.M. 1975. Knowledge and politics. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Unger, R.M. 1976. Law in modern society. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Unger, R.M. 1984. Passion: An essay on personality. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Valdes, F. 1997 Under construction: LatCrit consciousness, community, and theory. California Law Review, 85: 1087–1129. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3481057CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson, G.W, Shepard, J.M, Stephens, C.U., & Christman, J.C. 1999. Ideology and the economic social contract in a downsizing environment. Business Ethics Quarterly, 9: 659–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3857942CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weaver, G.R., & Brown, M.E. 2012. Moral foundations at work: New factors to consider in understanding the nature and role of ethics in organizations. In De Cremer, D., & Tenbrunsel, A. (Eds.), Behavioral Business Ethics: Shaping an emerging field. New York: RoutledgeGoogle Scholar
Weaver, G.R., & Treviño, L. 1994 Normative and empirical business ethics: Separation, marriage of convenience, or marriage of necessity? Business Ethics Quarterly, 4: 129–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3857485CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, R. 1997. Caring for justice. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Williams, P.J. 1991. The alchemy of race and rights. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wilson, E.O. 1975. Sociobiology. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Wing, A.K. (Ed.). 2003. Critical race feminism: A reader. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Worden, S. 2009 A genealogy of business ethics: A Nietzschean perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 84: 427–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10551-008-9718-zCrossRefGoogle Scholar