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Academic Education for Business: Its Development and the Contribution of Ignaz Jastrow (1856–1937): In Commemoration of the Hundredth Anniversary of Jastrow's Birth

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 July 2012

Fritz Redlich
Fritz Redlich
Affiliation:
Research Center in Entrepreneurial History at Harvard University
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Extract

A study of the career of Ignaz Jastrow, guiding spirit of the Berlin Handelshochschule, invites attention to the broader subject of academic education for business. There was a close relationship between the educational philosophy embodied in the founding of the Berlin school in 1906 and in that of the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration in 1908. This relationship was not accidental, and establishment of these two institutions constituted a decisive point in a long history, beginning in the eighteenth century. Over the years, the basic difficulty had been that of endeavoring to raise professional training for business above the secondary school level. In those instances during the nineteenth century where university-level training was attempted, the result was overemphasis on the general background of business. In 1900, despite the many promising experiments in European countries and America, a sound foundation for high-level business training was still lacking. Jastrow's Handelshochschule was the first institution that focused on the real world of business and at the same time was truly academic in nature. This same combination was also effected at Harvard, where the basic objectives were implemented by reformed teaching techniques and by a continuing program of research upon business subjects.

Type
Research Article
Information
Business History Review , Volume 31 , Issue 1 , Spring 1957 , pp. 35 - 91
Copyright
Copyright © The President and Fellows of Harvard College 1957

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References

1 I attended the celebration of Jastrow's seventieth birthday, when he delivered a charming speech describing the social and cultural background of the time when he grew up; in the year of his eightieth birthday I was already in the United States. See also Eyck, Erich, “Erinnerung an Ignaz Jastrow” in Deutsche Rundschau, LXXXII (1956), 981Google Scholar ff. and the article on “Jastrow” by Wunderlich, Frieda in Internationales Handwörterbuch des Gewerkschaftswesens, ed. Heyde, Ludwig (Berlin, 1930–1932)Google Scholar.

2 The best bibliography of my topic is to be found in August Wilhelm Fehling's paper “Collegiate Education for Business in Germany,” in Journal of Political Economy, XXXIV (1926), 545Google Scholar ff. But the bibliography refers to Germany only. Not all the items cited therein are available in the United States. The above volume of the Journal of Political Economy contains a few other pertinent papers not used in the following presentation.

3 Kaufmannsbildung und Hochschulbildung. Bürgertum und Staatsverwaltung. Zwei akademische Reden gehalten in der Aula der Handelshochschule, Berlin (Berlin, 1907Google Scholar).

4 Very typical is the pertinent presentation by Watts, Thomas, An Essay on the Proper Method for Forming the Man of Business: in a Letter (London, 1716Google Scholar, and later editions), yet in some respects it points to the future.

5 Of an antiquarian interest only is a project to which Professor Henrietta Larson has drawn my attention; she has pointed to it before in the unsigned paper “A Proposal for Schools of Business Administration in Seventeenth-Century England” in Bulletin of the Business Historical Society, XV (1941), 43Google Scholar ff.

The item in question, entitled Essays on Trade and Navigation in Five Parts: The First Part (London, 1695Google Scholar), was written by Sir Francis Brewster (d. 1704), a citizen, alderman, and (in 1674) mayor of Dublin, also an M. P. in the Irish House of Commons. In the introduction to the item (see especially p. vi) he suggested theoretical and practical training of future businessmen by experienced merchants. The schools to be established should simultaneously be enterprises, organized as joint-stock companies. Each student would invest in £1000 of stock, and together they would trade with a capital of £20–30,000 to all parts of the world. We meet here a typical seventeenth-century project and in Brewster, a braggart, the typical projector. The only significance of the immature scheme lies in its being representative of the first stirrings in a right direction.

A note on Brewster is in the Dictionary of National Biography.

6 To be exact, there exists a Königsberg doctor's thesis of 1704 by Gottfried Albert Pauli, which points to our subject under the title: An Academiae in Emporiis sint Erigendae.

7 This old German term has been rendered by an English writer as “knowledge of products”; see Hooper, Frederick and Graham, James, Commercial Education at Home and Abroad (London, 1901), 60Google Scholar. One also finds the term “study of merchandise.”

8 Although the Kress Library is unusually strong in Marperger's publications, those above-mentioned are not available, and I had to rely on the presentation by Zieger, Bruno, “Handelschulen” in Rein, W., ed., Encyklopädisches Handbuch der Pädagogik, 2d ed., IV (Langensalza, 1906), 6–8Google Scholar. Marperger's contribution is also mentioned in the article “Handelshochschulen” by H. Raydt in ibid., III (1905), 959, and Max Apt, 25 Jahre im Dienste der Berliner Kaufmannschaft (Berlin, 1927), 169Google Scholar.

9 The plan was published at least three times: The Merchant's Public Counting-House: or New Mercantile Institution … (London, 1750Google Scholar) [a second edition of 1751 is in the Goldsmith Library in London]; The British Mercantile Academy: or the Accomplished Merchant … (London, 1750)Google Scholar; finally it is to be found in the article “Mercantile Accountantship” in The Universal Dictionary of Trade and Commerce, both in the first edition of 1754 and the second of 1757, II, 210 ff.

10 See Footnote 5.

11 Smith, John Athelstone, Memoirs of the Marquis of Pombal (London, 1843), I, 305Google Scholar. The Société de Géographie de Lisbonne published in 1879 a paper L'Enseignement commercial en Portugal which is not accessible to the author.

12 Wurmb founded later a similar academy in Sweden; see Büsch, Johann Georg and Ebeling, C. D., Handlungsbibliothek, II (Hamburg, 1789), 318Google Scholar ff.

13 Language teaching was very expensive. Since the pupils came from many countries they possessed a very different degree of knowledge in the various tongues. But the teaching was such that everybody was trained according to his individual linguistic development. Incidentally, in 1789 the school lost its character as a boarding school. Thereafter Büsch restricted its task to mere teaching.

14 See the article on Ebeling in the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie.

15 Ludovici's book appeared first in 1756. Ludovici (1707–1778) was the son of a Leipzig professor and a professor himself, trained in philosophy and theology. See Rudolf Seyffert's introduction to the facsimile reproduction of the second edition of the Grundriss (Stuttgart, 1932Google Scholar).

16 Johann Georg Büsch, Umständliche Nachricht von der Hamburgischen Handlungs-Akademie (1778), cited from Sämtliche Schriften, XII (Wien, 1816), 389Google Scholar ff.; idem, Uber den Gang meines Geistes und meiner Tätigkeit (1794) cited from ibid., XV (Wien, 1817), 314 ff.; idem, Erfahrungen, IV (Hamburg, 1794), 270 ff.; idem, Abhandlung von dem Geldsumlauf …, II (Hamburg, 1780), appendix, 579 ff.; Büsch and Ebeling, op. cit., 323 ff.

Secondary sources are: Classen, J., Die ehemalige Handelsakademie des Professors J. G. Büsch und die Zukunft des akademischen Gymnasiums in Hamburg (Hamburg, 1865)Google Scholar; Stieda, Wilhelm, “Zur Geschichte der Hamburgische Handlungsakademie” in Zeitschrift des Vereins für Hamburgische Geschichte, XV (1910), 1Google Scholar ff.; Zieger in Rein, , op. cit., IV, 12, 13Google Scholar; Ehrenberg, Richard, Denkschrift über die Handebhochschule … in Deutscher Verband für das kaufmännische Unterrichtswesen, Veröffentlichungen, IV (Braunschweig, 1897), 23Google Scholar ff. (in future this item will be cited as Ehrenberg-Memorandum).

17 Ehrenberg-Memorandum, 17–19, 20, 23. [Continued on page 45.]

As to the teaching of the commercial sciences at the Hohe Karlsschule at Stuttgart, see Uhland, Robert, Geschichte der Hohen Karlsschule in Stuttgart, Darstellungen arts der Württembergischen Geschichte, No. 37, ed. Württembergische Kommission für Landesgeschichte (Stuttgart, 1953), 149, 150, 238Google Scholar ff.

The booklet by R. Beigel, Die Nothwendigkeit eines Lehrstuhls der Handelswissenschaften an den Universitäten (1893) is not available in the United States.

Prussia, Abgeordnetenhaus, Sammlung der Drucksachen, Anlagen zu den Stenographischen Berichten, 20. Legislaturperiode, I. Session, 1904/5, Drucksache 142, Vol. IV, 2205.

In Belgium a business school was attached in 1898 to the law faculty of the Universities of Gand and Liège and in 1899 to the University of Louvain. See Institut Supérieur de Commerce St.-Ignace [Antwerp], Notice Historique, mimeograph, 1952 (?), received through the courtesy of Adriaen Taymans, S.J., presently director of the school.

18 By the way, information on the early teaching of economics in Germany is to be found in Roscher, Wilhelm, Geschichte der National-Ökonomik in Deutschland (München, 1874), 471–72Google Scholar.

19 Zieger in Rein, , op. cit., IV, 13, 14Google Scholar. The original sources cited in the article are not available in America.

20 Kunth is well-known to German historians as one of the early promoters of Prussian commerce and manufacture and of education for the coming industrial age.

21 Gilow, Hermann, Das Berliner Handelschulwesen des 18. Jahrhunderts (Berlin, 1906Google Scholar), in Monumenta Germaniae Paedagogica, XXXV, passim, and especially 49, 59–60, 68, 70–71, 80, 154, 172, 173, 188, 193, 194, 197, 233–34; Goldschmidt, Friedrich and Goldschmidt, Paul, Das Leben des Staatsrats Kunth, 2d ed. (Berlin, 1888), 31 ff., 360–62Google Scholar. See also Simon, Oskar, Die Fachbildung des Preussischen Gewerbe- und Handelsstandes im 18. und 19. Jahrhundert (Berlin, 1902), 691Google Scholar ff. Schulz's paper “Über handlungswissenschaftlichen Unterricht auf Universitäten und Schulen” is to be found in Braunschweigisches Magazin XIX bestehend aus wöchentlichen gemeinnützigen Anlagen zu dem zwei und sechzigsten Jahrgange der Braunschweigischen Anzeigen für das Jahr 1806. 30. und 31. Stück, cols. 465 ff. A photostat of the item is available in Kress Library.

22 See above page 43 and Gilow, op. cit., 156, 172.

23 For examples of curricula see ibid., 52, 115, 190–91, 212–13, 281, 286 ff., 315 ff., 327.

24 Jastrow, Kauffmannsbildung, 15.

25 For the following, see “Denkschrift über die Gründung einer Handelshochschule in Köln zum 11. Juni 1879” printed in Hansen, Joseph, Gustav von Mevissen, ein rheinisches Lebensbild (Berlin, 1906), II, 627 ffGoogle Scholar.

Mevissen's low opinion about contemporary education for business is confirmed by Lindwurm, Arnold, Die Ausbildung zum Handelsstande, Gedanken eines Kaufmanns (Bremen, 1861Google Scholar). Anticipating Mevissen by about two decades, Lindwurm recommended a better general education for businessmen, pivoting around political economy. They should attend academic institutions, such as agricultural colleges or institutes of technology, to be built up to suit the needs of business. It is not clear if Lindwurm thought of education at the existing universities also, but he made it clear beyond doubt that he abhorred vocational secondary schools for future businessmen. See especially, pages 85 ff.; [the item is available at the library of the University of Michigan].

28 See Goldschmidt, Friedrich, Die sociale Lage und die Bildung der Handlungsgehilfen (Berlin, 1894), 8 ff.CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and for a French presentation of the subject, Astier, P. and Cuminal, I., L'Enseignement technique industriel et commercial en France et à l'étranger (Paris [1908]), 6 ffGoogle Scholar. Although it deals mainly with industrial apprentices, it is representative of a whole contemporary literature on the crisis of the institution of apprenticeship.

27 Fortbildungsschulen are part-time schools the attendance of which is obligatory for all teen-agers who leave school prior to their eighteenth birthday. They are geared to the educational need of apprentices in commerce and industry.

der, Kuratorium “Kaufmännischen Fortbildungsschulen zu Berlin,” Die kaufmännischen Fortbildungsschulen zu Berlin, Ubersicht …, Festschrift zur Feier des 10 jährigen Bestehens der Anstalten am 1. Oktober 1895 (Berlin, 1895Google Scholar); Farrington, Frederic Ernest, Commercial Education in Germany (New York, 1914Google Scholar); idem, “Commercial Education in Germany,” in School and Society, III (1916); Die Korporation der Kaufmannschaft von Berlin, Festschrift zum hundertjährigen Jubiläum am 2. März 1920 (Berlin, 1920), 392 ffGoogle Scholar.

28 The problem of an academic education of businessmen, as it appeared to contemporaries after it had become an established fact, i.e., in the early twentieth century, was brought out in Germany by Thiess, Karl in “Hochschulbildung für Unternehmer” in Schmollers Jahrbuch, XXXVIII (1914), 43 ff.Google Scholar; and in America by Thwing, Charles F., Collegiate Training and the Businessman (New York, 1904Google Scholar).

29 Deutscher Verband für das Kaufmännische Unterrichtswesen, Veröffentlichungen, Vols. III, IV, VI (34–66), VII (Braunschweig, 1897, 1897, 1897, 1898Google Scholar). Vol. IV contains Ehrenberg's Gutachten, cited above in footnote 16; see especially 10–13, 53, 54.

30 Somewhat similarly, by 1900 the Swiss cantons Bern and Zurich permitted graduates of their commercial high schools to attend courses in economics and commercial law at their universities.

31 Raydt, Hermann, Zur Begründung einer Handels-Hochschule in Leipzig, Denkschrift im Auftrag der Handelskammer zu Leipzig (p.p., Leipzig, 1897), 4, 6, 7, 9, 11 ff.Google Scholar; idem, in Rein, op. cit., Ill, 960 ff.; “Ordnung für die Handelshochschule in Leipzig” (reprint from its first annual report) in Max Apt, speech of 1900 (see footnote 41), 48–55; Hooper and Graham, op. cit., 88 ff.

32 Kähler, Wilhelm, “Die Auflösung der Aachener Handelshochschule” in Zeitschrift für Handelswissenschaft und Handelspraxis, I (1908/1909), 171, 172Google Scholar.

Incidentally, commercial courses were taught during the nineteenth century temporarily at the institutes of technology at Braunschweig, Karlsruhe, Vienna, and Riga; Ehrenberg, op. cit., 29.

R. Beigel's Vorschlag zur Erweiterung der Technischen Hochschule zu Karlsruhe durch eine Abteilung für Handelswissenschaften (1895) is not available in this country.

33 Lehmann, Hermann, “Die handelswissenschaftlichen Lehreinrichtungen und die Studienstiftung fur Wirtschaftsingenieure” in Gast, Paul, ed., Die Technische Hochschule zu Aachen 1870–1920 … (Aachen, 1921), 379 ff.Google Scholar; Raydt in Rein, , op. cit., III, 964Google Scholar; Simon, op. cit., 895 ff.

34 A detailed survey of the beginnings of the Akademie für Sozial- und Handelswissenschaften at Frankfurt (starting in the Winter Semester of 1901) cannot be given, since the primary source material, such as the early annual reports of the Rector, is not accessible. Yet I do not think that this is a real gap, since the school's goal was much wider than the training of businessmen. It was meant to be, and actually was, the nucleus of the present University of Frankfurt. [Continued on page 55.]

The combination of two different educational goals (the training of businessmen and improved education in the social and political sciences) in one independent school was the result of a merger of two movements, seen possible because the same combination was supposed to have been achieved earlier in the Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques in Paris and in the London School of Economics. See Zieger in Rein, op. cit., IV, 965; Simon, op. cit., 894, 904 ff., and the nonaccessible Berichte of the Rector, especially the one for the two academic years 1901–1903 (Jena, 1903Google Scholar).

35 Die Städtische Handels-Hochschule in Cöln, die erste selbständige Handels-Hochschule in Deutschland, 4th ed. (Berlin, 1903Google Scholar), passim, and especially for the progressing curriculum, 74 ff.; Eckert, Christian, Die Städtische Handels-Hochschule in Cöln. Bericht über die zwei Studienjahre 1903 und 1904 … (Berlin, 1905Google Scholar), especially 75 ff.; idem, Die Städtische Handels-Hochschule in Cöln, Bericht über die Entwicklung der Handels-Hochschule im ersten Jahrzehnt ihres Bestehens … (Cöln, 1911), passim, and especially 84 ff.; Simon, op. cit., 899 ff.; Rein, , op. cit., III, 965Google Scholar; Farrington, op. cit. (1914), 200 ff.

One may want to compare the Cologne curriculum with the “essentials” for commercial education as presented by Hooper and Graham, op. cit., 27.

36 During the period under investigation no one term was generally accepted to cover the scientific treatment of business technique and business organization. The eighteenth-century word Handelswissenschaften was becoming obsolete and the present-day term Betriebswirtschaftslehre not commonly applied as yet. One finds these words used synonymously, the one employed in the text, and the term Einzelwirtschaftslehre.

37 Bücher, Karl, “Die Handelshochschulbewegung in Deutschland” in Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft, 2d series (Tübingen, 1918), 351 ff.Google Scholar; the essay is a good critical survey of the German movement, as it stood by the outbreak of World War I. See also Bücher's, address Der deutsche Kaufmann und die Handelshochschule (Leipzig, 1910Google Scholar), reprinted from Zur Eröffnung des neuen Handekhochschul-Gebäudes in Leipzig (Leipzig, 1910), 23Google Scholar ff.

38 The German word Korporation means association or body and is not an equivalent of the English “corporation,” which is in German Aktiengesellschaft.

39 A chamber of commerce was and is in most Continental countries, including Germany, a kind of organization very different from the one which goes under that name in America. Continental chambers of commerce are obligatory associations of all merchants and manufacturers of the district for which they are established; and besides representing their members' interests they have certain public and semipublic functions transferred to them by the government of the country in question.

40 See Die Korporation der Kaufmannschaft von Berlin, Festschrift zum hundertjährigen Jubiläum am 2. März 1920, passim; Max Apt, 25 Jahre, 21, 22, 48 ff., 91. The fundamental questions which were faced are treated in Simon, op. cit., 872 ff.

41 Apt, op. cit., 169 ff. See also his pamphlets Die Errichtung einer Handelshochschule in Berlin (Berlin, 1900Google Scholar) and Zur Handelshochschulbewegung in Deutschland (Berlin, 1907Google Scholar).

42 It must have been in Jastrow's own library which was auctioned off shortly after his death and after the outbreak of the recent war. An attempt to acquire the library for the United States failed at that time. The memorandum, entitled Denkschrift betr. die unterrichtliche Ausgestaltung der zukünftigen Handels-Hochschule der Korporation der Kaufmannschaft von Berlin (1905), 116 leaves, is cited on page 87 of Verzeichnis sämtlicher Schriften von Dr. J. Jastrow (Berlin, 1929Google Scholar). It is also mentioned by Apt, 25 Jahre, 200.

43 Jastrow was connected as a Stadtrat with the administration of the City of Charlottenburg in which he lived.

44 Jastrow, Kaufmannsbildung, 14.

45 See Jastrow's trip report (as cited in footnote 64), 443.

46 “Handelshochsehulen” in Handwörterbuch der Kommunalwissenschaften, II (Jena, 1922), 469 ff.Google Scholar, especially 472. The younger schools are not treated in this article since it leads up only to the Berlin and Harvard schools.

47 Jastrow was appointed Rector for three years, but since his elected successor, Carl Dunker, became seriously ill and died, he had to fill the gap and carried the administrative load through the winter semester 1910/11.

48 The following material is available for the beginnings of the Berlin Handelshochschule: Jastrow, I., Die Handelshochschule Berlin, Bericht über das erste Studienjahr Oktober 1906/7 (Berlin, 1908Google Scholar); idem, Die Handelshochschule Berlin, Bericht über die erste Rektoratsperiode Oktober 1906–1909 (Berlin, 1909); Handels-Hochschule Berlin, Eröffnung: Oktober 1906, Organisation und Lehrplan … nebst Vorlesungsverzeichnis für das Wintersemester 1906/7 (1906); idem, Zweck und Organisation (Berlin, 1910); [an English version of this item exists: Berlin Merchants' Corporation, The Handelshochschule Berlin, Object and Organisation of the Berlin Commercial University, Report presented by … to the International Congress of Press Associations … (Berlin, 1908Google Scholar)]; idem, Ordnungen und sonstige Bestimmungen für Studierende, Hospitanten und Hörer (available were the Berlin editions, 1911 and 1913); Korporation der Kaufmannschaft, Festschrift, 380 ff.; Apt, 25 Jahre, 169 ff. See also survey, Jastrow's “Handelshochschule” in Handbuch der Politik, 3d ed., III (Berlin, 1921Google Scholar).

Valuable information on the early history of the German academic business schools is contained in some papers by Georg Obst: “Die deutschen Handelshochschulen” “Die deutschen Handelshochschulen im Jahre 1908/09,” “Die deutschen Handelshochschulen im Jahre 1909/10,” “Die deutschen Handelshochschulen 1911/12 und ihre Hauptlehrgebiet: die Privatwirtschaftslehre,” all in Zeitschrift für Handehwissenschaft und Handelspraxis, I (1908/1909), 192 ffGoogle Scholar. II (1909/10), 131 ff., Ill (1910/11), 174 ff., V (1912/13), 147 ff.

49 See the microfilms of clippings on the conflict from Berlin contemporary newspapers in Baker Library, also Apt, op. cit., 233.

50 Commerce, Chambre de, Paris, Notice sur l'Enseignement Commerciale organisé par …, Exposition Universelle de Chicago (Paris, 1893Google Scholar); idem, Ecole Supérieure de Commerce, Notice Historique…. Extrait du Bulletin de la Chambre de Commerce (Paris, 1899Google Scholar); Renouard, Alfred, Histoire de I'Ecole Superieure de Paris … 2d ed. (Paris, 1899Google Scholar).

51 The Ecole Polytechnique and the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers were founded in 1794 and the Ecole Supérieure des Arts et Métiers in 1819.

52 See, Projet de I'Etablissement d'une Ecole Gratuite de Commerce à Dijon … (Dijon, 1780Google Scholar), passim.

53 See his Cours d'Economie Industrielle 1836–1837 (Paris, 1837), chapter 8, especially pp. 182, 183Google Scholar.

54 I use as criteria: the age of the students at their admission, the curricula, and to a less extent the teaching method.

55 Ehrenberg-Memorandum, 38 ff. I have checked several contemporary French publications which do not bring out any fundamental difference either, nor does [Jacob Schoenberg] Technical Education in Europe, Part I: Industrial Education in France (State Dept., Washington, 1888), 76 ffGoogle Scholar. The standard work is Léautey, Eugène, L'Enseignement Commercial et les Ecoles de Commerce en France et dans le Monde Entier, 4th ed. (Paris, 1895), 3–60, 182 ffGoogle Scholar.

56 Institut Supérieur de Commerce de l'Etat à Anvers, Annuaire 1952 avecune Notice Historique de 1852 a 1952 (Anvers, 1952), 6–24Google Scholar; Ehrenberg-Memorandum, 47 ff.; Hooper and Graham, op. cit., 111 ff.; Simonin, L., “Ecoles de Commerce en France et à l'Etranger” in Revue des Deux-Mondes, XCVIII (1872), 712 ffGoogle Scholar.

57 Kleibel, Anton, Fünfzig Jahre Wiener Handeb-Akademie (Wien, 1908Google Scholar), passim, especially 3, 4, 89; Goldschmidt, op. cit., 29–30.

58 Die K. K. Exportakademie in Wien, zur Erinnerung … (Wien, 1916), 11 ff.Google Scholar; Oberparleiter, Karl, “Geschichte der Exportakademie und der Hochschule für Welthandel” in 50 Jahre Hochschule für Welthandel in Wien (Wien, 1948), 5 ff.Google Scholar; “Programm für die Export Akademie des K. K. Österreichischen Handelsmuseums in Wien, Studienjahr 1899/1900” in the appendix of Apt, Handelshochschule in Berlin, 33–48. I have been unable to locate material on the business school in Budapest, which was founded in 1900.

59 Mercantile and Maritime College in the City of London. Report of the Public Meeting for the Formation of the above Institution … May 17, 1853. The Right Honorable the Earl of Harrowby in the Chair (London, 1853Google Scholar), passim, and especially 4, 30–35. For Leone Levi, see the article in Dictionary of National Biography and for King's College, London, the 1953Google Scholar edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, XXII, 873.

60 I am not aware of the existence of a history of the Ecole Libre. I have used its annual publication: Organisation & Programme des Cours.

61 Webb, Sidney, London Education (London, 1904), 97 ff., 123 ff.Google Scholar; Webb, Beatrice, Our Partnership (New York, 1948), 86 ff.Google Scholar; Abbott, Albert, Education for Industry and Commerce in England (London, 1933), Chapter XIGoogle Scholar.

62 Simonin, op. cit., 712.

63 Ehrenberg-Memorandum, 50; Die Städtische Handels-Hochschule in Cöln, xi, xii; Apt, Handelshochschulbewegung, 35.

The Swiss development was in the first decade of the twentieth century still in its earliest stages so that a footnote must suffice. Conditions in Zürich, Bern, and Basel are touched upon (see pages 44, 53, and 79). Saint Gall possessed a Handelshochschule since 1899, but it had no full-time professors before 1904. See the Prussian government document cited in footnote 17; Gagliardi, Ernst, Nabholz, Hans, and Strohle, Jean, Die Universität Zürich 1833–1933 und ihre Vorläufer, Festschrift … (Zürich, 1938), 835Google Scholar; and as to Saint Gall, “Fünfzig, Jahre Handels-Hochschule St. Gallen 13./14.Mai 1949” in St. Gallen Hochschul-Nachrichten, Nr. 28, Festnummer [1949], 4–6.

The first Scandinavian academic school of business, that at Stockholm, began later than that at Berlin and to a certain extent under Berlin's influence.

64 For the following, see Jastrow, Ignaz, “Bericht über eine volkswirtschaftliche Studienreise durch Nordamerika” in Berliner Jahrbuch für Handel und Industrie, I (1904), Vol. I, 419 ffGoogle Scholar. (the pertinent passages of the report were translated into English, see U. S. Bureau of Education, Report of the Commissioner of Education for the Year ending June 30, 1905 (Washington, 1907), I, 97 ff.Google Scholar, also the highly complimentary remark in the introduction, xxiii, xxiv); Carl Dunker, “Die Mittelschulen in ihren Beziehungen zu Handel und Gewerbe” in “Reiseberichte über Nordamerika erstattet von der Kommission des Königlich Preussischen Ministeriums für Handel und Gewerbe” in Prussia, , Haus der Abgeordneten, Sammlung der Drucksachen, Anlagen zu den Stenographischen Berichten, 20. Legislaturperiode, II. Session 1905/06, VI (Berlin, 1906), No. 257, pp. 3098, 3099Google Scholar.

65 Jastrow, “Bericht,” 438, 439.

66 Jastrow, Bericht über die 1. Rektoratsperiode, 82. Those businessmen's papers were published under the title Gewerbliche Einzelvorträge, ed. Älteste der Kaufmannschaft von Berlin, three series, Berlin (Reitner). The volumes are not accessible to me. The publication may well have been inspired by the corresponding American book: Hatfield, Henry Rand, ed., Lectures on Commerce, delivered before the College of Business and Administration at the University of Chicago (Chicago, 1904)Google Scholar.

67 Watts, op. cit., 27, 28. Wurmb's method is described in some detail in Büsch, and Ebeling, , op. cit., II, 320Google Scholar. For the later development of the method, see Ehrenberg, op. cit., 48; Simonin, op. cit., 713/14; Gautier, G. H., “Les Ecoles de Commerce aux Etats-Unis” in Revue des Deux-Mondes, CIV (1872), 248 ffGoogle Scholar.

68 For Apt's two pamphlets see footnote 41; pages 7; and 5, 13, respectively.

69 Goldschmidt, op. cit., 32; Poggiali, Ciro, Ferdinando Bocconi. Mercurio in Finanziera (Milan, 1945), 273, 274Google Scholar. Tuck, Revoltella, and Bocconi may have been donors only, the business counselor Leopoldo Sabattini was the driving force in Milan. His original plan is reprinted in the book by Bagiotti mentioned below, pp. 283 ff.

The name of the Trieste school, a rather small one, was Scuola Superiore di Commercio, Foundazione Revoltella. The history of the Milan Università Bocconi, Bagiotti, Tullio, Storia delta Università Bocconi, 1902–1952 (Milano [1952]Google Scholar), has not been obtainable prior to the completion of this paper.

70 Marsh, C. S., “General Lee and a School of Commerce” in Journal of Political Economy, XXXIV (1926), 657 ffCrossRefGoogle Scholar. A few years before General Lee made his proposal in the academic year of 1868/69, one Robert C. Spencer of Milwaukee had in 1866 suggested that a College of Commerce be attached to the University of Wisconsin; see Herrick, Cheesman A., Meaning and Practice of Commercial Education (New York, 1904), 257 ffGoogle Scholar.

71 Representative is Wharton, Joseph, Is a College Education Advantageous to a Business Man? Address … (p.p. [Philadelphia], 1890)Google Scholar, passim, and Thwing, op. cit., passim. See also, Kirkland, Edward Chase, Dream and Thought in the Business Community, 1860–1900 (Ithaca, New York, 1956), 83 ffGoogle Scholar.

72 For this point, see West, Andrew Fleming, The American College in Nicholas Murray Butler, ed., Monographs on Education in the United States, No. 5 (New York [1900]), 4, 5Google Scholar.

73 A subcommittee report of 1915 regarding the Harvard Business School is typical for its lack of understanding of the correct goal. See Heaton, Herbert, A Scholar in Action: Edwin F. Gay (Cambridge, Mass., 1952), 83CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

74 See the article on James in Dictionary of American Biography.

75 As to Wharton, see the article in the Dictionary of American Biography. The plan is in Wharton's pamphlet (see footnote 71), 26 ff. Most important is [Johnson, E. R.], The Wharton School: Its First Fifty Years 1881–1931 (Philadelphia, 1931)Google Scholar.

76 Edmund Janes James, “Schools of Finance and Economy” and “Education of Businessmen,” in American Bankers Association, Proceedings (1890), 20 ff.; (1892), 18 ff. (see also ibid. [1891], 19 ff.). These two items were also published independently under the titles Education of Business Men (New York, 1891Google Scholar) and Education of Business Men I and II (New York, 1892)Google Scholar. See also idem, Education of Business Men in Europe, A Report to the American Bankers Association (New York, 1893); idem, Commercial Education in Nicholas Murray Butler, ed., Monographs on Education in the United States, No. 13 (New York [1900]). Of James's, “Education of Business Men” there exists still another edition with a slightly different title page (Chicago, 1898Google Scholar).

77 Heaton, op. cit., 70, footnote.

78 Johnson, op. cit.., 17, 18.

79 Lord, John King, A History of Dartmouth College 1813–1909 (Concord, N. H., 1913), 497, 498Google Scholar; Richardson, Leon Burr, History of Dartmouth College (Hanover, N. H., 1932), 736, 737Google Scholar; Herrick, op. cit., 272–74, 319–23.

80 As to the Ecole Libre see above page 73. Recommendations of its adaptation to the American scene can be found in Edmund Janes James, Outline of a Proposed School of Political and Social Science in Philadelphia Social Science Association, Papers read before the … (Philadelphia, 1885)Google Scholar; see page 14, according to which students were expected to come from the ranks of businessmen; idem, “A School of Political and Social Science” in Ethical Record, III (1890); Morison, Samuel Eliot, ed., The Development of Harvard University since the Inauguration of President Eliot, 1869–1929 (Cambridge, 1930), 533 ffCrossRefGoogle Scholar.

81 See “Preliminary Announcement: the Graduate School of Business Administration” four-page flyleaf, and the first catalogue of the School (1908).

82 Heaton, op. cit., 76.

83 For example, the gradual disappearance of the course on Warenkunde is significant. The knowledge of commodities gained by long mercantile experience became obsolete through scientific analysis or test of the chemist or physicist. The pertinent teaching became superfluous.

The present status of many of the problems here treated historically has been brought out recently by Carroll, Thomas H., Business Education for Competence and Responsibility (The American Association of Collegiate Schools of Business, 1956Google Scholar); Hartmann, Heinz, Education for Business Leadership, A Study prepared for the Industrial Relations Center, University of Chicago (Paris, 1955Google Scholar).