Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T12:46:30.810Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Justice and the Possibility of Good Moralism in Bioethics

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 May 2019

MATTI HÄYRY
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract:

Moralism in bioethics and elsewhere means going beyond accepted moral principles, either by exaggerating good ethical concerns, by applying them to areas where they do not belong, or simply by assuming anything else than concrete physical or mental harm as normative guides. This paper explores the conceptual background of moralism especially in the consequentialist tradition, presents cases of allegedly bad moralism in the light of this exploration, introduces six approaches to justice, and argues that these approaches question our prevailing views on the goodness and badness of moralism in its various forms.

Keywords

justicemoralismmoralitymoral principlesethicsconsequentialist traditionharm principle
Type
Special Section: Health, Morality, and Moralism
Information
Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics , Volume 28 , Issue 2 , April 2019 , pp. 236 - 263
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

Acknowledgements: The author thanks the Academy of Finland (project SA 307467) and the Finnish Ministry for Agriculture and Forestry (project MMM 248774) for their financial support.

References

Notes

1. Nelson, L. System of Ethics. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; 1956, at 89.Google Scholar

2. Urmson, JO. Saints and heroes. In: Feinberg, J, ed. Moral Concepts. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul; 1969, at 63.Google Scholar

3. Moore, GE. Principia Ethica. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1903, at 24–6.Google Scholar

4. Moore, GE. Ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1912.Google Scholar

5. Moore seemed to believe that his formulation gives us plenty of choice, when he wrote, “whereas every voluntary action, without exception, must be either right or wrong, it is by no means necessarily true of every voluntary action that it either ought to be done or ought not to be done, – that it either is our duty to do it, or our duty not to do it. This will occur, whenever, among the alternatives open to us, there are two or more, any one of which would be equally right.” See note 4, Moore 1912, at 15.

6. Kekes, J. On the supposed obligation to relieve famine. Philosophy 2002;77:503–17, at 503.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

7. Taylor, C. Moralism and morally accountable beings. Journal of Applied Philosophy 2005;22:153–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

8. Azevedo MA. On the moral distinction between morality and moralism. 2015; available at ResearchGate DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.4584.0240 (last accessed 5 July 2018).

9. Quinton A. Utilitarian Ethics. Second edition (first published 1973). London: Duckworth; 1989, at xi.

10. Godwin W. Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Modern Morals and Happiness. Third edition (ed. Kramnick I, this edition first published 1798, first edition first published 1793). Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books; 1985, at 170. It seems that Godwin did not want to offend his readers, though. In the first edition of the book, the people to be rescued were Fénelon and his maid who was the decision maker’s mother or sister, so Godwin apparently made a concession to the sensibilities of his public by changing this to brother or father.

11. Häyry, M. Liberal Utilitarianism and Applied Ethics. London: Routledge; 1994.Google Scholar

12. Glover, J. Causing Death and Saving Lives. Harmondsworth, Middlesex; 1977.Google Scholar

13. Singer, P. Practical Ethics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1979.Google Scholar

14. Singer P, Cannold L, Kuhse H. William Godwin and the defense of impartialist ethics. In: Singer P. Unsanctifying Human Life. Kuhse H, ed. Oxford: Blackwell; 2002:157–77.

15. Coady, CAJ. Messy morality: The challenge of politics. Oxford: Clarendon Press; 2008, at 17.Google Scholar

16. See note 7, Taylor 2005.

17. Nussbaum, M. Danger to human dignity: The revival of disgust and shame in the law. The Chronicle of Higher Education 6 Aug 2004; available at www.chronicle.com/article/Danger-to-Human-Dignity-the/21047 (last accessed 5 July 2018).Google Scholar

18. Gould, SJ. Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin. New York, NY: Harmony Books; 1996.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

19. Harris, J. Clones, Genes, and Immortality: Ethics and the Genetic Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1998.Google Scholar

20. Kass, LR. Life, Liberty and the Defense of Dignity: The Challenge for Bioethics. San Francisco, CA: Encounter Books; 2002, at 150.Google Scholar

21. Häyry M. The tension between self-governance and absolute inner worth in Kant’s moral philosophy. Journal of Medical Ethics 2005;31:645–7.

22. Kant I. On a supposed right to lie because of philanthropic concerns (orig. German 1797, transl. Ellington JW). In: Ellington JW, ed. Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals: with On a Supposed Right to Lie because of Philanthropic Concerns, third edition. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing Company; 1993.

23. Mill JS. On Liberty (original 1859), fourth edition. London: Longman, Roberts & Green, 1869; available at www.bartleby.com/130/5.html (last accessed 5 July 2018).

24. See note 23, Mill 1869.

25. Häyry M, Takala T. Coercion. In: ten Have H, ed. Encyclopedia of Global Bioethics. Cham: Springer; 2016. Online. I will not insist on always distinguishing paternalism and moralism in the following considerations. When the government claims to protect “my good” against my own decisions, a moral element is often included. I must be kept from taking a lethal dose of poison (voluntarily) not just because it would be better for me to go on living (the voluntariness of the choice challenges this) but also because it would be the right thing for me to go on living.

26. Häyry, M, Airaksinen, T. Hard and soft offers as constraints. Philosophia 1988;18:385–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

27. Häyry, M. Utilitarian approaches to justice in health care. In: Rhodes, R, Battin, MP, Silvers, A, eds. Medicine and Social Justice: Essays on the Distribution of Health Care. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2002:53–64, at 60–1.Google Scholar

28. Häyry M. Mahdollisimman monen onnellisuus: Utilitarismin historia, teoria ja sovellukset [The Happiness of the Greatest Number: The History, Theory, and Applications of Utilitarianism, in Finnish.] Helsinki: WSOY; 2001, at 108.

29. Stephen JF. Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. Second edition (ed. White RJ, this edition first published 1874, first edition first published 1873). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1967.

30. Bentham J. An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (original 1789). Burns JH, Hart HLA, eds. London and New York: Methuen; 1982.

31. Mill, JS. A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive. Eight edition. New York, NY: Harper and Brothers; 1882; available at https://www.gutenberg.org/files/27942/27942-pdf.pdf (last accessed 5 July 2018).Google Scholar

32. Mill, JS. Principles of Political Economy (original 1848). Ashley, WJ, ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co.; 1920; available at https://www.gutenberg.org/files/30107/30107-pdf.pdf (last accessed 5 July 2018).Google Scholar

33. See note 23, Mill 1869.

34. Mill, JS. Utilitarianism (original 1863). Seventh edition. London: Longmans, Green and Co.; 1879; available at http://www.gutenberg.org/files/11224/11224-h/11224-h.htm (last accessed 5 July 2018).Google Scholar

35. Mill, JS. The Subjection of Women. London: Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer; 1869; available at http://www.gutenberg.org/files/27083/27083-h/27083-h.htm (last accessed 5 July 2018).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

36. Häyry, H, Häyry, M. Liberty, equality, utility – Classical to liberal utilitarianism. In: Campbell, T, ed. Law and Enlightenment in Britain. Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press; 1990:145–56.Google Scholar

37. See note 29, Stephen 1874, at 67–8.

38. See note 29, Stephen 1874, at 68.

39. See note 29, Stephen 1874, at 32.

40. Roberts, D. Paternalism in Early Victorian England. London: Croom Helm; 1979, at 259.Google Scholar

41. Häyry, H. The Limits of Medical Paternalism. London: Routledge; 1991, at 81–6. The following interpretation of Stephen’s view is based on this.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

42. See note 29, Stephen 1874, at 36.

43. See note 29, Stephen 1874, at 244–5.

44. See note 29, Stephen 1874, at 249–50.

45. See note 29, Stephen 1874, at 250–1.

46. See note 23, Mill 1869.

47. See note 11, Häyry 1994, at 26–32.

48. Häyry, M, Häyry, H. Obedience to rules and Berkeley’s theological utilitarianism. Utilitas 1994;6:233–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

49. Häyry, M. Passive obedience and Berkeley’s moral philosophy. Berkeley Studies 2012;23:3–14.Google Scholar

50. Dworkin, G. Devlin was right: Law and the enforcement of morality. William & Mary Law Review 1999;40:927–46; available at http://scholarship.law.wm.edu/wmlr/vol40/iss3/11/ (last accessed 5 July 2018).Google Scholar

51. Häyry, M. But what if we feel that cloning is wrong? Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2001;10:205–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

52. Häyry, M. Deeply felt disgust – a Devlinian objection to cloning humans. In: Almond, B, Parker, M, eds. Ethical Issues in the New Genetics: Are Genes Us? Aldershot: Ashgate; 2003:55–67.Google Scholar

53. Report of the Committee on Homosexual Offences and Prostitution, Cmd. 247, 1957.

54. See note 23, Mill 1869.

55. See note 53, Report of the Committee 1957, at para. 13.

56. The Committee’s interpretation of “public order and decency” was quite concrete and tangible, and it extended to unnecessarily offensive behaviour in the public sphere, but did not extend to more abstractly offensive activities behind closed doors, out of sight.

57. See note 53, Report of the Committee 1957, at para. 224.

58. See note 53, Report of the Committee 1957, at para. 13.

59. For the Committee’s justifications, see also note 53, Report of the Committee 1957, at para 13, 62.

60. Devlin, P. The Enforcement of Morals (original 1959). Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1965.Google Scholar

61. See note 60, Devlin 1965, at 3.

62. See note 60, Devlin 1965, at 4.

63. See note 60, Devlin 1965, at 7.

64. See note 60, Devlin 1965, at 17.

65. See note 60, Devlin 1965, at 17.

66. See note 60, Devlin 1965, at 9.

67. See note 60, Devlin 1965, at 15.

68. Hart, HLA. Immorality and treason (original 1959). In: Dworkin, RM, ed. The Philosophy of Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1977, at 87–88.Google Scholar

69. Dworkin, R. Taking Rights Seriously. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1977, at 246.Google Scholar

70. Hart, HLA. Law, Liberty and Morality. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1963.Google Scholar

71. See note 60, Devlin 1965, at 17.

72. Häyry, M. Cloning, Selection, and Values: Essays on Bioethical Intuitions. Helsinki: Acta Philosophical Fennica 81; 2007, at 57–73.Google Scholar

73. Sidgwick, H. The Methods of Ethics (original 1874). Seventh edition (originally published 1907). London: Macmillan; 1922.Google Scholar

74. Schneewind, JB. Sidgwick’s Ethics and Victorian Moral Philosophy. Oxford: Clarendon; 1977.Google Scholar

75. Quinton, A. Utilitarian Ethics (original 1973). Second edition. London: Duckworth; 1989.Google Scholar

76. See note 73, Sidgwick 1922, at 215.

77. See note 73, Sidgwick 1922, at 379.

78. Kant, I. Foundation of the Metaphysics of Morals (original 1785). Transl. Beck, LW. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merril; 1959.Google Scholar

79. Hare, RM. Moral Thinking: Its Levels, Methods, and Point. Oxford: Clarendon Press; 1981, at 21–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

80. See note 73, Sidgwick 1922, at 381.

81. See note 73, Sidgwick 1922, at 382.

82. See note 11, Häyry 1994, at 50–2.

83. See note 73, Sidgwick 1922, at 215.

84. Official website; available at https://web.archive.org/web/20100217045521/http://www.spr.ac.uk/main/ (last accessed 5 July 2018).

85. See note 73, Sidgwick 1922.

86. See note 74, Schneewind 1977, at 30–1.

87. Feinberg, J. Harm to Others. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1984.Google Scholar

88. Feinberg, J. Offense to Others. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1985.Google Scholar

89. Feinberg, J. Harm to Self. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1986.Google Scholar

90. Feinberg, J. Harmless Wrongdoing. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1988.Google Scholar

91. Bentham, J. A Table of the Springs of Action. London: Hunter; 1817; available at https://www.ucl.ac.uk/bentham-project/table-springs-action/table-springs-action (last accessed 5 July 2018).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

92. See note 87, Feinberg 1984, at 31–64.

93. See note 87, Feinberg 1984, at 186.

94. See note 87, Feinberg 1984, at 34–5.

95. See, for example: http://www.nationalparks.fi/hikinginfinland/rightsandregulations (last accessed 5 July 2018).

96. See note 87, Feinberg 1984, at 35–6.

97. Takala, T, Häyry, M. Genetic ignorance, moral obligations and social duties. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 2000;25:107–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

98. Häyry, M. Happiness and the friction of moral revolutions. In: Häyry, M, Takala, T, eds. The Future of Value Inquiry. Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi; 2001:123–30.Google Scholar

99. Häyry, M, Takala, T. Cloning, naturalness and personhood. In: Thomasma, DC, Weisstub, DN, Hervé, C, eds. Personhood and Health Care. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 2001:281–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

100. Alternatively, its close ally paternalism. See e.g. note 41, Häyry 1991; note 11, Häyry 1994, at 9, 61, 86, 92, 137, 161.

101. See note 25, Häyry, Takala 2016.

102. Ahola-Launonen, J. The evolving idea of social responsibility in bioethics: A welcome trend. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2015;24:204–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

103. Ahola-Launonen, J. 2016: Humanity and social responsibility, solidarity and social rights. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2016;25:176–85.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

104. Ahola-Launonen, J. Social responsibility and healthcare in Finland: The luck egalitarian challenge to Scandinavian welfare ideals. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2016;25:448–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

105. See note 20, Kass 2002.

106. Habermas, JThe Future of Human Nature Rehg, WPensky, M, Beister, H. Cambridge: Polity Press; 2003.Google Scholar

107. Sandel, M. 2007. The Case against Perfection: Ethics in the Age of Genetic Engineering. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press; 2007.Google Scholar

108. Häyry, M. Considerable life extension and three views on the meaning of life. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2011;20:21–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

109. Häyry, M. Protecting humanity: Habermas and his critics on the ethics of emerging technologies. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2012;21:211–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

110. Takala, T. Gender, disability and personal identity: Moral and political problems in community thinking. Kristiansen, K, Vehmas, S, Shakespeare, T, eds. Arguing About Disability: Philosophical Perspectives. London: Routledge; 2009:124–33.Google Scholar

111. Häyry, M. The moral contestedness of selecting “deaf embryos.” Kristiansen, K, Vehmas, S, Shakespeare, T, eds. Arguing About Disability: Philosophical Perspectives. London: Routledge; 2009:154–68.Google Scholar

112. Loewy, EH. What would a socialist health care system look like? A sketch. Health Care Analysis 1997;5:195–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

113. Takala, T. Justice for all? The Scandinavian approach. In: Rhodes, R, Battin, MP, Silvers, A, eds. Medicine and Social Justice: Essays on the Distribution of Health Care. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2002:183–90.Google Scholar

114. Häyry, M. Doctrines and dimensions of justice: Their historical backgrounds and ideological underpinnings. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2018;27:188–216.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

115. Häyry M. Sopimuksellinen oikeudenmukaisuus ja sen vaihtoehdot [Contractual justice and its alternatives, in Finnish]. In: Häyry M, Takala T, Ahola-Launonen J, eds. Oikeudenmukaisuuden ongelma [The Problem of Justice, in Finnish]. Helsinki: Gaudeamus; 2018:208–21.

116. Nozick, R. Anarchy, State, and Utopia. Oxford: Blackwell; 1974.Google Scholar

117. Dworkin, R. What Is Equality? Part 1: Equality of Welfare. Philosophy and Public Affairs 1981;10:185–246.Google Scholar

118. Dworkin, R. What Is Equality? Part 2: Equality of Resources. Philosophy and Public Affairs 1981;10:283–345.Google Scholar

119. Cohen, GA. On the currency of egalitarian justice. Ethics 1989;99:906–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

120. Cohen, GA. History, Labour and Freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1988.Google Scholar

121. Cohen, G. Why Not Socialism? Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press; 2009.Google ScholarPubMed

122. See note 11, Häyry 1994, at 48–67.

123. Häyry, M. Rationality and the Genetic Challenge: Making People Better? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2010, at 184–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

124. Häyry, M. Utilitarianism and bioethics. In: Ashcroft, R, Dawson, A, Draper, H, McMillan, J, eds. Principles of Health Care Ethics. Second edition. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 2007:57–64.Google Scholar

125. Harsanyi, J. Morality and the theory of rational behaviour. In: Sen, A, Williams, B, eds. Utilitarianism and Beyond. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1982:39–62.Google Scholar

126. Bentham, J. Rights, Representation, and Reform: Nonsense upon Stilts and Other Writings on the French Revolution. In: Schofield, P, Pease-Watkin, C, Blamires, C, eds. The Collected Works of Jeremy Bentham. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2002:317–401.Google Scholar

127. MacIntyre, A. After Virtue. Notre Dame, IN: Indiana University Press; 1981.Google Scholar

128. Jonas H. The Imperative of Responsibility: In Search of an Ethics for the Technological Age (original 1979). Transl. Jonas H, Herr D. Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press; 1984.

129. Häyry, M. Precaution and solidarity. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2005;14:199–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

130. Häyry, M, Takala, T. American principles, European values, and the mezzanine rules of ethical genetic data banking. Häyry, M, Chadwick, R, Árnason, V, Árnason, G, eds. The Ethics and Governance of Human Genetic Databases: European Perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2007:14–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

131. Sandel, M. Liberalism and the Limits of Justice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1982.Google Scholar

132. Sandel, M. Justice: What Is the Right Thing to Do? London: Penguin Books; 2009.Google Scholar

133. Sen, A. Inequality Reexamined. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1992.Google Scholar

134. Sen, A. The Idea of Justice. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press; 2011.Google Scholar

135. Nussbaum, M. Sex and Social Justice. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1998.Google Scholar

136. Nussbaum, M. Frontiers of Justice: Disability, Nationality, Species Membership. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press; 2006.Google Scholar

137. Nussbaum, M. Creating Capabilites: The Human Development Approach. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press; 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

138. See note 136, Nussbaum 2006, at 76–78.

139. This observation also applies to communitarianism and socialism. Many communitarians talk about solidarity and communality as alternatives to justice (i.e. justice as defined by libertarians, utilitarians, and liberal egalitarians). According to some radical forms of socialism, all talk about “justice” is just an ideological smokescreen to hide the workings of capitalism.

140. Gilligan, C. In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1982.Google Scholar

141. Kohlberg, L. Essays on Moral Development Vol. I. Philosophy of Moral Development: Moral Stages and the Idea of Justice. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row; 1981.Google Scholar

142. Kohlberg, L. Essays on Moral Development Vol. II. The Nature and Validity of Moral Stages. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row; 1984.Google Scholar

143. For a detailed account of the background assumptions, see note 114, Häyry 2018.

144. Rawls, J. A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press; 1971.Google Scholar

145. Rawls, J. Political Liberalism [orig. 1993], extended edition. New York, NY: Columbia University Press; 2005.Google Scholar

146. Rawls, J. The Law of Peoples. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press; 2001.Google Scholar

147. Habermas J. The Theory of Communicative Action Volumes I-II. Transl. McCarthy T. Cambridge: Polity Press; 1984-7.

148. Habermas, J. Moral Consciousness and Communicative Action. Transl. Lenhardt, C, Weber Nicholsen, S. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1990.Google Scholar

149. Habermas, J. Justification and Application: Remarks on Discourse Ethics. Cronin, C, transl. Cambridge: Polity Press; 1993.Google Scholar

150. Häyry, M, Takala, T. Genetic engineering and the risk of harm. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 1998;1:61–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

151. See note 129, Häyry 2005.

152. Holm, S, Takala, T. High hopes and automatic escalators: A critique of some new arguments in bioethics. Journal of Medical Ethics 2007;33:1–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

153. Häyry, M. Measuring the quality of life: why, how and what? Theoretical Medicine 1991;12:97–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

154. Häyry, M, Häyry, H. Health care as a right, fairness and medical resources. Bioethics 1990;4:1–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

155. Häyry, M. There is a difference between selecting a deaf embryo and deafening a hearing child. Journal of Medical Ethics 2004;30:510–2.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

156. See note 111, Häyry 2009.

157. Smith, A. The Theory of Moral Sentiments (original 1759). Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund; 1976.Google Scholar

158. Smith, A. An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (original 1776). Fifth edition, Cannan, E, ed. London: Methuen and Co., Ltd.; 1904.Google Scholar

159. Häyry, M. European values in bioethics: Why, what, and how to be used? Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 2003;24:199–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

160. Häyry, M. Another look at dignity. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2004;13:7–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

161. See note 129, Häyry 2005.

162. See note 130, Häyry, Takala 2007.

163. The Belmont Report, 1979; available at www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/index.html (last accessed 5 July 2018).

164. Beauchamp, T, Childress, J. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 1979. (Now in its seventh edition, 2012.)Google Scholar

165. Holm, S. Not just autonomy: The principles of American Biomedical Ethics. Journal of Medical Ethics 1995;21:332–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

166. Gillon, R. Ethics needs principles – four can encompass the rest – and respect for autonomy should be “first among equals”. Journal of Medical Ethics 2003;29:307–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

167. Daniels, N. Just Health Care. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1985.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

168. Daniels, N. Just Health: Meeting Health Needs Fairly. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2008.Google Scholar

169. Macklin, R. Against Relativism: Cultural Diversity and the Search for Ethical Universals in Medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1999.Google Scholar

170. Häyry, M. A defense of relativism. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2005;14:7–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

171. Rendtorff, JD, Kemp, P, eds. Basic Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw Volumes 1 & 2. Copenhagen and Barcelona: Centre for Ethics and Law & Institut Borja de Bioètica; 2000.Google Scholar

172. Häyry, M, Takala, T, Herissone-Kelly, P. Ethics in Biomedical Research: International Perspectives. Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi; 2007.Google Scholar

173. See note 159, Häyry 2003.

174. Häyry M. Prescribing cannabis: Freedom, autonomy, and values. Journal of Medical Ethics 2004;30:333–6.

175. Takala, T. Concepts of “person” and “liberty,” and their implications to our fading notions of autonomy. Journal of Medical Ethics 2007;33:225–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

176. See note 160, Häyry 2004.

177. See note 129, Häyry 2005.

178. See note 170, Häyry, Takala, Herissone-Kelly, eds. 2007.

179. See note 130, Häyry, Takala 2007.

180. Tong, R, Williams, N. Feminist ethics. Zalta, EN, ed. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (summer 2018 edition); available at https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/feminism-ethics/ (last accessed 5 July 2018).Google Scholar

181. Donchin, A, Scully, J. Feminist bioethics. Zalta, EN, ed. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (winter 2015 edition); available at https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2015/entries/feminist-bioethics/ (last accessed 5 July 2018).Google Scholar

182. Wollstonecraft, M. A Vindication of the Rights of Women (original 1792). Brody, M, ed. London: Penguin; 1988.Google Scholar

183. Mill, JS. The subjection of women (original 1869). In: Mill, JS. On Liberty and the Subjection of Women. Ware, Hertfordshire: Wordsworth Editions Ltd; 1996.Google Scholar

184. Beecher, CE, Stowe, HB. The American Woman’s Home: Principle of Domestic Science (original 1869). New York, NY: Aeno Press and The New York Times; 1971.Google Scholar

185. Buhle, MJ, Buhle, P, eds. The Concise History of Women’s Suffrage, Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press; 1978.Google Scholar

186. Gilman, CP. Herland: A Lost Feminist Utopian Novel (original 1915). New York, NY: Pantheon; 1979.Google Scholar

187. Firestone, S. The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution. New York, NY: William Morrow and Company, Inc.; 1970.Google Scholar

188. Takala, T. Human before sex? Ectogenesis as a way to equality. Simonstein, F, ed. Reprogen-Ethics and the Future of Gender. Dordrecht: Springer, 2009:187–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

189. Kittay, EF, Meyers, DT, eds. Women and Moral Theory. Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield; 1987.Google Scholar

190. Sherwin, S. No Longer Patient: Feminist Ethics and Health Care. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press; 1992.Google Scholar

191. Tong, R. Feminist Approaches to Bioethics: Theoretical Reflections and Practical Applications. Boulder, CO: Westview Press; 1997.Google Scholar

192. Kittay, EF, Feder, EK, eds. The Subject of Care: Feminist Perspectives on Dependency. Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield; 2003.Google Scholar

193. Scully, JL, Baldwin-Ragaven, L, Fitzpatrick, P, eds. Feminist Bioethics: At the Center, on the Margins. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2010.Google Scholar

194. Walzer, M. Thick and Thin: Moral Argument at Home and Abroad. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press; 1994.Google Scholar

195. Schaub, D. Commentary of Nussbaum, Shell, and Kass. In: Human Dignity and Bioethics: Essays Commissioned by the President’s Council on Bioethics. Washington, D.C.: The President’s Council on Bioethics; 2008; available at https://bioethicsarchive.georgetown.edu/pcbe/reports/human_dignity/schaub_on_nussbaum_shell_kass.html (last accessed 5 July 2018).Google Scholar

196. Bernardini, P. Human dignity and human capabilities in Martha C. Nussbaum. Iustum Aequum Salutare 2010;6:45–51; available at http://ias.jak.ppke.hu/hir/ias/20104sz/15.pdf (last accessed 5 July 2018).Google Scholar

197. Nussbaum, M. Human dignity and political entitlements. In: Human Dignity and Bioethics: Essays Commissioned by the President’s Council on Bioethics. Washington, D.C.: The President’s Council on Bioethics; 2008.Google Scholar

198. Rand A. The Virtue of Selfishness: A New Concept of Egoism. New York, NY: New American Library; 1964.

199. See http://fabnet.org/ (last accessed 5 July 2018).

200. Luna, F, ed. Bioethics and Vulnerability: A Latin American View. Amsterdam: Rodopi; 2006.Google Scholar

201. Dickenson, DL. Property in the Body: Feminist Perspectives. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

202. Kuhse, H, Singer, P, Rickard, M. Reconciling impartial morality and a feminist ethic of care. The Journal of Value Inquiry 1998;32:451–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar