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Il reste encore des travaux à faire: Feminism and Political Science in Canada and Québec

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 November 2009

Jane Arscott  and
Manon Tremblay
Jane Arscott
Affiliation:
Athabasca University
Manon Tremblay
Affiliation:
University of Ottawa
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Abstract

This article takes an empirical measure of the extent to which feminism has altered the discipline of Political Science in Canada and Québec since the mid-1980s. The authors, members of the second cadre of female political scientists in the field of women and politics, single out for particular attention the current relation between anglophone and francophone feminist scholarship in the field. They maintain that the two linguistic solitudes remain fundamental to the women and politics field as much as was the case before the emergence of feminist perspectives in the discipline.

Résumé

Adoptant une perspective empirique, cet article a pour objectif de cemer quelques-uns des effets du féminisme sur les sciences politiques au Canada et au Québec depuis le milieu des années quatre-vingt. En tant que femmes politologues de la seconde génération qui travaillons la thématique «Femmes et politique», les auteures insistent sur les relations présentes entre les féministes anglophones et francophones qui s'intèressent à ce domaine. Elles soutìennent qu'aujourd'hui comme hier, c'est-à-dire avant l'avènement d'une perspective féministe dans la discipline, l'idée des deux solitudes, particulièrement dans ses dimensions linguistiques, marque toujours la thématique «Femmes et politique».

Type
Field Analysis/Orientations de la Science Politique
Information
Canadian Journal of Political Science/Revue canadienne de science politique , Volume 32 , Issue 1 , March 1999 , pp. 125 - 151
Copyright
Copyright © Canadian Political Science Association (l'Association canadienne de science politique) and/et la Société québécoise de science politique 1999

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References

1 Bien que cet article soit publicé en anglais, il nous semble qu'écrit en français le mot « Québec » s'harmonise mieux au propos de notre texte qui souligne certains fossés entre les anglophones et les francophones et le statut de minoritaires de ces derniers au sein de notre discipline. Ce serait là, il nous semble, une façon de réconcilier les «deux solitudes » de mieux refléter l'identityé de chaque groupe linguistique.

2 See, notably, Andrew, Caroline, “Contribution du féminisme au développement des connaissances en science politique,” in Beaudry, Lucille, Maillé, Chantal and Olivier, Lawrence, eds., Les avenues de la science politique: théories, paradigms et scientificité (Montréal: ACFAS, 1989), 19–24Google Scholar; Vickers, Jill, Reinventing Political Science: A Feminist Approach (Halifax: Fernwood Press, 1997)Google Scholar; and Brodie, Janine, Politics on the Margins: Restructuring and the Canadian Women's Movement (Halifax: Fernwood Press, 1995)Google Scholar.

3 Bashevkin, Sylvia B., Toeing the Lines: Women and Party Politics in English Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1985)Google Scholar; Brodie, Janine, Women and Politics in Canada (Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1985)Google Scholar; and Tardy, Évelyne, La politique: un monde d'hommes? Une étude sur les mairesses au Québec (Montréal: Hurtubise HMH, 1982)Google Scholar.

4 Ralston, Meredith, “Homeless Women and the New Right,” in Gingras, Francois-Pierre, ed., Gender and Politics in Contemporary Canada (Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 1995), 121Google Scholar; and Michèle Ollivier et Manon Tremblay, La recherche feministe (Paris: L'Harmattan, forthcoming).

5 Douglas, Mary, How Institutions Think (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1986)Google Scholar. This is not to say that the split between Québec and English Canada is specific to the field “Women and Politics”; we are conscious that it also characterizes the other specializations of political science.

6 A notable exception is a French-written publication on the Canadian women's movement, Hilt, Caroline, Après la reconnaissance, une nouvelle mise en marge? Le mouvement des femmes et la structure des opportunités politiques au Canada, 1990–1997, Les Cahiers de recherche du GREMF, 80 (Sainte-Foy: Université Laval, GREMF, 1998)Google Scholar.

7 “Women and Politics” bridges between the narrowly behaviourist preoccupation of the women in politics field and the ever-more-expansive feminist political science field. The latter is not only, or always, about women or by women. It embraces a methodology that takes account of gender and other axes of oppression so as to produce objectively “good” social science.

8 Code, Lorraine, “Taking Subjectivity into Account,” in Alcoff, Linda and Potter, Elizabeth, eds., Feminist Epistemologies (New York: Routledge, 1993), 21Google Scholar; and West, Candace and Zimmerman, Don H., “Doing.Gender,” Gender and Society 1 (1987), 146–147CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Diane Lamoureux, Linda Trimble and Miriam Koene, Report on the Status of Women in the Discipline, Survey Prepared for the Board of the Canadian Political Science Association (May 1997) published in Canadian Political Science Association/Association canadienne de science politique Bulletin 26 (November 1997), 76–83. Because only 18 out of 47 department chairs answered the survey upon which the 1997 Report is based, we are unable to report accurately how many women faculty there are, or their rank. The absence of such information provides additional evidence of gatekeeping in the discipline. See also Marie- Thérèse Séguin, “La venue des femmes en science politique: une histoire d'immigrantes en trois temps,” in Beaudry, Maillé et Olivier, eds., Les avenues de la science politique, 73–77.

10 The newly created Women's Programme under the leadership of Sue Findlay invited Jill Vickers to address the women in politics question. She developed and taught one of the first Women and Politics courses at Carleton University in 1976. It is important to learn more about when other courses first began to be taught, by whom and under what circumstances.

11 The development of the field in English-language pedagogy can readily be seen by contrasting two editions of Course Outlines on Women and Politics, compiled and edited by Janice Newton, and published by Wilfrid Laurier University Press in 1993 and 1998. The contrast makes clear the extent to which the field has evolved and grown in the later 1990s.

12 If these descriptions provide some evidence indicating the limited impact of feminism on the discipline, a more qualitative interpretation sheds light on additional evidence that otherwise is not shown quantitatively. We refer here to allegations about a “chilly climate” that have existed in recent years in some universities in Canada and Québec. (For a general overview of this idea, see The Chilly Collective, ed., Breaking Anonymity: The Chilly Climate for Women Faculty [Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1995])Google Scholar. It is more difficult now to argue that recent controversies in some university departments of political science in Canada are entirely unrelated, if only in their “growing pains.” Concerning the University of British Columbia, see Marchak, Patricia M., Racism, Sexism and the University: The Political Science Affair at the University of British Columbia (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1996)Google Scholar. In 1998, the UBC department received a presidential apology. Even so, the recent report written on the status of women in our discipline by Lamoureux, Trimble and Koene (1997) gives a great deal of attention to the qualified reception of women and feminism in our departments. For example, of the 135 female members of the Canadian Political Science Association that responded to the questionnaire, 64 per cent said that they never took courses on women or gender during their university training and 45 per cent of respondents believe that they had been subjected to gender discrimination when they were students. This discrimination ranged from sexist remarks directed at the women to sexual harassment, including a devaluing of the “Women and Politics” theme, and difficulties obtaining scholarships or paid assistantships. See Lamoureux, Trimble and Koene, Report on the Status of Women in the Discipline, 77–83.

13 Hopkins, Anne, “Observations on Gender, Political Science and Academy,” Journal of Politics 55 (1993), 561–568CrossRefGoogle Scholar. At the moment, we lack precise quantitative measures of the changes in the numbers of women over time; all we have is implied comparisons between the two Status of Women reports. Of course, these developments in Québec and Canada need to be followed, as in the United States.

14 See, for example, “Canadian Political Science Association 1999 Programme Committee/Association canadienne de science politique, Comité du programme 1999,” this Journal 31 (1998), 636Google Scholar. The annual report of the editorial board of the journal on manuscript submissions generally follows the CPSA programme committee's field identification for the presentation of papers at its annual meeting. See, for example, Manfredi, Christopher P., “Canadian Journal of Political Science, Annual Report, 1997,” Canadian Political Science Association/Association canadienne de science politique Bulletin 27 (May 1998), 26–30Google Scholar.

15 Prior to becoming a member of parliament, Pauline Jewett taught at Queen's University in the late 1940s, and then at Carleton University from 1955 to 1974, serving as chair of the Department of Political Science in 1960–1961. Dr. R. E. McKown served as head of the Department of Political Science at the University of Alberta from 1975 to 1982. Additional information should be sought about women “pioneers” in departments of political science.

16 Black, Naomi, “The Child Is Father to the Man: The Impact of Feminism on Canadian Political Science,” in Tomm, Winnie, ed., The Effects of Feminist Approaches on Research Methodologies (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1989), 229–233Google Scholar. See also Nelson, Barbara, “Women and Knowledge in Political Science: Texts, Histories and Epistemologies,” Women and Politics 9 (1989), 1–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

17 Black, “The Child Is Father to the Man,” 233.

18 For an example of this sort of analysis, see Vickers, Jill, ed., Getting Things Done: Women's Views of Their Involvement in Political Life (Ottawa: UNESCO, Division of Human Rights and Peace and the Canadian Research Institute for the Advancement of Women [CRIAW/ICREF], 1988)Google Scholar; and Rankin, L. Pauline and Vickers, Jill, “Locating Women's Politics,” in Tremblay, Manon and Andrew, Caroline, eds., Women and Political Representation in Canada (Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, 1998), 341–367Google Scholar.

19 In addition, Caroline Andrew wrote a number of conference papers in the early 1980s that commented on the state of feminist scholarship in the discipline. These include “Contribution du féminisme au développement des connaissances en science politique,” in Beaudry, Maillé and Olivier, eds., Les avenues de la science politique, 19–24, and “Politics, Power and Women: The Impact of Feminism on Political Science,”presented at a conference given at the University of Toronto,November 29, 1984Google Scholar, in the series organized by the Women's Studies Programme during 1984“1985 as part of the 100th anniversary of the admission of women to the University of Toronto. Sandra Burt presented some of the earliest conference papers in what later became the Women and Politics field at the annual meetings of the Canadian Political Science Association. See her “Women's Perceptions of Politics: Some Implications for Behavioural Research,” University of Saskatchewan, 1979, and “Different Democracies? A Preliminary Examination of the Political Worlds of Canadian Men and Women,” Women & Politics 6 (1986), 57–79CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Bun–s studies for the (Macdonald) Royal Commission Son the Economic Union and Development Prospects for Canada that considered the effects of economic development on gender in Canada (Burt, Sandra, “Women's Issues and the Women's Movement in Canada since 1970,” in Cairns, Alan and Williams, Cynthia, eds., The Politics of Gender, Ethnicity and Language in Canada [Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1986], 111–169Google Scholar [vol. 34 in the series of studies commissioned as part of the research program of the Royal Commission on the Economic Union and Development Prospects for Canada]); Vickers, Jill has tracked developments in the field in “Memoirs of an Ontological Exile: The Methodological Rebellions of Feminist Research,” in Miles, Angela and Finn, Geraldine, eds., Feminism in Canada: From Pressure to Politics (Montreal: Black Rose, 1982), 27–46Google Scholar, and “Feminist Approaches to Women in Politics: Canadian Women and Politics,” in Kealey, Linda and Sangster, Joan, eds., Beyond the Vote: Canadian Women and Politics (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989), 16–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar. On the francophone side, this critique has been done by de Sève, Micheline and Lamoureux, Diane, “La science politique a-t-elle un sexe?” in Mura, Roberta, ed., Un savoir à notre image? Critiques féministes des disciplines (Montréal: Adage, 1991), 135–149Google Scholar; also Lamoureux, Diane and de Sève, Micheline, “Faut-il laisser notre sexe au vestiaire?” Politique: Revue de la Société québécoise de science politique no. 5 (1989), 5–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

20 Butler, Judith, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990)Google Scholar; Garneau, Édith, “Le genre: assez fort pour lui, mais conçu pour elle,” Politique et Sociétés 17 (1998), 151–170CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mouffe, Chantal, “Feminism, Citizenship and Radical Democratic Politics,” in Butler, Judith and Scott, Joan W., eds., Feminists Theorize the Political (New York: Routledge, 1992), 369–384Google Scholar; and Yeatman, Anna, Postmodern Revisionings of the Political (New York: Routledge, 1994)Google Scholar.

21 Even so, feminism provides no single vision and no entirely unified critique of political science. For this reason, it is more accurate to refer to feminist critiques of the discipline. This said, feminism as an approach to the study of political science is in the singular to refer to its methodological commitment to take account of women and to provide a woman-centred analysis in which the broad aim is to end the gender oppression of women by social change. Political analysis, then, has a feminist purpose insofar as it contributes to this end.

22 Frye, Marilyn, “Oppression,” in Frye, Marilyn, The Politics of Reality: Essays in Feminist Theory (Freedom, Calif.: The Crossing Press, 1983), 1–16Google Scholar; Young, Iris Marion, “Five Faces of Oppression,” The Philosophical Forum 19 (1988), 270–290Google Scholar; and Young, Iris Marion, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), 40–48Google Scholar. The feminist concept of oppression and group-based oppression is crucial to the argument made in this article.

23 O'Brien, Mary, The Politics of Reproduction (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1981)Google Scholar, and O'Brien, Mary, Reproducing the World: Essays in Feminist Theory (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989)Google Scholar.

24 Clark, Lorenne and Lange, Lynda, The Sexism of Social and Political Theory: Women and Reproduction from Plato to Nietzsche (London: University of Toronto Press, 1979), vii–xviiGoogle Scholar; de Sève and Lamoureux, “La science politique a-t-elle un sexe?”; Lamoureux and de Sève, “Faut-il laisser notre sexe au vestiaire?”; Makus, Ingrid, Women, Politics and Reproduction: The Liberal Legacy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996)Google Scholar; and Scott, Katherine, “The Dilemma of Liberal Citizenship: Women and Social Assistance Reform in the 1990s,” Studies in Political Economy 50 (1996), 7–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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27 Men in general experience relative privilege in virtue of being men, despite the fact that some men, like all women, are oppressed. Men, however, are never oppressed on the basis of their gender alone; whereas some women are (see Frye, “Oppression,” 16).

28 Young, “Five Faces of Oppression,” and her Justice and the Politics of Difference, 40–48.

29 Spelman, Elizabeth V., Inessential Woman: Problems of Exclusion in Feminist Thought (Boston: Beacon Press, 1988)Google Scholar,

30 But see Bashevkin, Sylvia, Women on the Defensive: Living through Conservative Times (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998)Google Scholar; Tardy, Évelyne and Bernard, André, Militer an féminin (Montréal: Remue-ménage, 1995)Google Scholar; and Vickers, Jill, Rankin, Pauline and Appelle, Christine, Politics as if Women Mattered:A Political Analysis of the National Action Committee on the Status of Women (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993)Google Scholar.

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33 Tully, James, Strange Multiplicity: Constitutionalism in an Age of Diversity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 34, 37CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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35 Concerns of this sort certainly are not exclusive to women, gender, political science or feminism. With regard to the already well-established demands for recognition, or on racial and cultural differences among women in Canada, and their relevance for knowledge production, see Agnew, Vijay, Resisting Discrimination: Women from Asia, Africa, and the Caribbean Women's Movement in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996Google Scholar); de Sève, Micheline, “Les études féministes: le chassé-croisé du savoir/pouvoir,” in Tremblay, Manon and Andrew, Caroline, eds., Femmes et représentation politique au Québec et au Canada (Montréal: Remue-ménage, 1997), 55–66Google Scholar; Jhappan, Radha, “Post-Modem Race and Gender Essentialism or a Post-Mortem of Scholarship,” Studies in Political Economy 51 (1996), 15–64CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Simms, Glenda P., “Racism as a Barrier to Canadian Citizenship,” in Kaplan, William, ed., Belonging: The Meaning and Future of Canadian Citizenship (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1993), 333–348Google Scholar; and Turpel-Lafond, Mary Ellen, “Patriarchy and Paternalism: The Legacy of the Canadian State for First Nations Women,” in Andrew, Caroline and Rodgers, Sandra, eds., Women and the Canadian State/Les femmes et l'État canadien (Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1997), 241–261.Google Scholar

36 Dacks, Gurston, Green, Joyce and Trimble, Linda, “Road Kill: Women in Alberta's Drive toward Deficit Elimination,” in Laxer, Gordon and Harrison, Trevor, eds., Trojan Horse: Alberta and the Future of Canada (Montreal: Black Rose Books, 1995), 270–285Google Scholar. See also Alberta, House of Assembly, Debates, March 30, 1995,941.

37 See Brodie, Women and Politics in Canada, 10–11; and Tremblay, Manon, Des femmes au Parlement: un strategic feministe? (Montreal: Remue-menage, 1999).Google Scholar

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39 See, notably, Nelson, Barbara J. and Chowdhury, Najma, eds., Women and Politics Worldwide (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994).Google Scholar

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41 Jenson, Jane and Phillips, Susan D., “Regime Shift: New Citizenship Practices in Canada,” International Journal of Canadian Studies 14 (1996), 111–135.Google Scholar

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46 Kymlicka, Will, Recent Work in Citizenship Theory (Ottawa: Multiculturalism and Citizenship Canada, 1992), 29, 34.Google Scholar

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50 On this topic, see Cardinal, Linda, “La recherche sur les femmes francophones vivant en milieu minoritaire: un questionnement sur le feminisme,” Recherches feministes 5 (1992), 5–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

51 Jenson, Jane, “Fated to Live in Interesting Times: Canada's Changing Citizenship Regimes,” this Journal 30 (1997), 627–644.Google Scholar

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53 English-language feminist scholarship of this sort, other than that in political science, includes Carty, Linda E., And Still We Rise: Feminist Political Mobilization in Contemporary Canada (Toronto: Women's Press, 1993)Google Scholar; and Adamson, Nancy, Briskin, Linda and McPhail, Margaret, Feminist Organizing for Change: The Contemporary Women's Movement in Canada (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1988).Google Scholar

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55 Tremblay and Andrew, eds., Femmes et représentation politique.

56 Andrew and Rodgers, eds., Women and the Canadian State/Les femmes et I'État canadien.

57 Politique et Sociétés 17 (1998). See the response of the board of directors of the Canadian Political Science Association to the recommendations made in the Report on the Status of Women in the Discipline that dealt with the CPSA's annual meeting and this Journal (Canadian Political Science Association, Minutes of the Meeting of the Board of Directors, 7 June, 1998, Item 11, The Canadian Political Science Association/Association canadienne de science politique Bulletin 27 [May 1998], 24–26).

58 See Lamoureux, Trimble and Koene, Report on the Status of Women in the Discipline.

59 Andrew, Caroline, “Women and the Welfare State,” this Journal 17 (1984), 668, 683.Google Scholar

60 For a comparative analysis of the role of women in the emergence of the welfare state in English-Canada and Québec, see Cohen, “Suffrage féminin et démocratie au Canada.”

61 For example, see Jenson, Jane, “Les réformes des services de garde pour jeunes enfants en France et au Québec: une analyse historico-institutionnaliste,” Politique et societes 17 (1998), 183–216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

62 Vickers, Reinventing Political Science, 77.

63 West and Zimmerman, “Doing Gender.”

64 Carroll and Zerilli, “Feminist Challenges to Political Science,” 70.

65 Andrew, “Women and the Welfare State,” 683. Andrew, revisits her topic in “Les femmes et l'État-providence: question revue et corrigée,” Politique et Sociétés 17 (1998), 171–182CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Her tone is more pessimistic than 15 years earlier. Women have, she concludes, borne an enormous cost from the downsizing of the welfare state. The fact that the original address was published in English and the updated account is in French invites further dialogue between feminist linguistic communities.