Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T05:26:19.832Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

More Honey Than Vinegar: Peer Review As a Middle Ground between Universalism and National Sovereignty

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 March 2016

Elvira Domínguez-Redondo  and
Edward R. McMahon
Get access

Summary

Peer review mechanisms, such as the Universal Periodic Review, rely upon traditional sovereign state diplomacy for contemporary human rights implementation. This article argues that this is a positive development for several reasons. First, at a theoretical level, it reveals an evolving maturity of the human rights regime through its capacity to detach from exclusively legalistic approaches to human rights implementation. Second, at a policy level, there is enough evidence of measured positive outcomes of peer review mechanisms to suggest a preference for more co-operative approaches to ensuring human rights compliance as a first and complementary step to other more controversial legal/adversarial means of implementation (such as the third pillar of the R2P concept). Finally, peer review mechanisms offer a theoretical and pragmatic framework conciliating between universalist and relativist conceptual approaches to human rights, accommodating and integrating views that call for compliance with international human rights law as well as those emphasizing respect for sovereignty.

Type
Articles
Information
Canadian Yearbook of International Law/Annuaire canadien de droit international , Volume 51 , 2014 , pp. 61 - 97
Copyright
Copyright © The Canadian Council on International Law / Conseil Canadien de Droit International, representing the Board of Editors, Canadian Yearbook of International Law / Comité de Rédaction, Annuaire Canadien de Droit International 2014

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 On the origin of the expression and its use by Martin Luther King, see Cohen, Joshua, The Arc of the Moral Universe and Other Essays (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010) at 17, n 4.Google Scholar A modern and interesting reformulation of the idea can be found in Keane, David, “Survival of the Fairest: Evolution and Geneticization of Human Rights” (2010) 30:3 Oxford J Legal Stud 467.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

2 See, for example, UN General Assembly, In Larger Freedom: Towards Development, Security and Human Rights for All: Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc A/59/2005 (21 March 2005).

3 Domínguez-Redondo, Elvira, “Role of the UN in the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights” in Chowdhury, Azizur Rahman and Bhuiyan, Jahid Hossain, eds, An Introduction to International Human Rights Law (Boston: Brill, 2010) 119 at 121–25.Google Scholar

4 Cassese, Antonio, International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001) at 354.Google Scholar

5 Using the examples of the United States, the European Union, and China, see Bradford, Anu and Posner, Eric A, “Universal Exceptionalism in International Law” (2011) 52:1 Harv Int’l LJ 3.Google Scholar

6 Charter of the United Nations, Can TS 1945 No 7 (in force 24 October 1945) [UN Charter].

7 On the 1997 UN reforms, aimed at mainstreaming human rights, see Domínguez-Redondo, Elvira, “The Millennium Development Goals and the Human Rights Based Approach: Reflecting on Structural Chasms with the United Nations System” (2009) 13:1 Int’l JHR 29 at 31.Google Scholar In her 2011 annual report, the UN high commissioner for human rights highlighted the approval of the following policy documents as key components of the efforts to mainstream human rights: (1) Human Rights Due Diligence Policy (approved by the UN Secretary General in 2011); (2) the Joint Policies on Human Rights for Peace Missions (endorsed in September 2011 by the UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations, the Department of Political Affairs, and the Department of Field Support); and (3) the Human Rights Mainstreaming Mechanism under the United Nations Development Group, United Nations Development Group, “UNDG Human Rights Mainstreaming Mechanism Operational Plan 2011-2013” (2011), online: <http://undg.org/docs/12173/UNDG-HRM OperationalPlanNov2011.pdf>. See Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, OHCHR Report 2011 (2012) at 190. See also Domínguez-Redondo at 11–12, 42–43, 59–60, 70–72, 79–81, 92–94.

8 One example of this is demonstrated in McMahon, Edward R, The First Cycle of the Universal Periodic Review Mechanism of the United Nations Human Rights Council: A Work in Progress (Berlin: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2012) at 24–26, online: <http://www.fes-globalization.org/geneva/documents/08_2012_UPR McMahon.pdf>.Google Scholar See also Lempinen, Miko, The United Nations Commission on Human Rights and the Different Treatment of Governments (Turku: Abo Akademi University, 2005) at 167–92.Google Scholar

9 Between 1999 and 2011, the Commission on Human Rights and the Human Rights Council (HRC) adopted resolutions, sponsored by the Organisation of Islamic Countries, on “defamation of religions,” which implied some endorsement of controversial limitations to the right of freedom of expression. HRC Resolution 16/18 (2011) has changed this trend, replacing the focus on “combating defamation” with “combating religious intolerance.” See HRC, Combating Intolerance, Negative Stereotyping and Stigmatization of, and Discrimination, Incitement to Violence and Violence against, Persons Based on Religion or Belief, HRC Res 16/18 (2011), UNGAOR, 16th Sess, UN Doc A/HRC/Res/16/18 (2011). However, proposals to introduce a ban on defamation of religion are still an incendiary topic in human rights fora. See, for example, Osabu-Kle, Daniel , Compatible Cultural Democracy: The Key to Development in Africa (Peterborough, ON: Broadview Press, 2000).Google Scholar See also Scharffs, Brett G, “International Law and the Defamation of Religion Conundrum” (2013) 11:1 Rev Faith & International Affairs 66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

10 See Domínguez-Redondo, Elvira, “The Universal Periodic Review: Is There Life beyond Naming and Shaming in Human Rights Implementation?” (2012) 4 NZL Rev 673.Google Scholar

11 “Conditionality” refers to a specific set of conditions attached to the disbursement of policy-based lending or budget support. See Koeberle, Stefan et al, eds, Conditionality Revisited: Concepts, Experiences, and Lessons (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2005) at 6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

12 On the motivations and political background surrounding the creation of the UPR, see Domínguez-Redondo, Elvira, “The Universal Periodic Review of the UN Human Rights Council: An Assessment of the First Session” (2010) 7:3 Chinese J Int’l L 721 at 722–24.Google Scholar

13 On means used to resolve international disputes, see Brownlie, Ian, “The Peaceful Settlement of International Disputes” (2009) 8:2 Chinese J Int’l L 267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

14 On the declaration of non-competence with respect to allegations of human rights violations, see ECOSOC Resolution 75(V) of 5 August 1947, UN Doc E/573, ESCOR, 5th Sess, Suppl No 1 at 20, endorsing the decision of the UN Commission on Human Rights during its second session (UN Doc E/259 (1946) at para 22). The only entry point for petitions to UN organs, until 1967, was restricted to those addressed to the now inoperative Trusteeship Council and the “24 Committee” that monitored implementation of the 1960 Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, GA Res 1654 (XVI), UN Doc A/RES/1654 (XVI) (27 November 1961). See, for example, Rodley, Nigel, “Monitoring Human Rights by the UN System and Nongovernmental Organizations” in Kommers, Donald P and Loescher, Gilburt D, eds, Human Rights and American Foreign Policy (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1979) 157 at 161–62.Google Scholar On the change of position of the organization, reflected in ECOSOC Resolution 1235 (XLII), ESCOR 42nd Sess, UN Doc E/4393 (6 June 1967) Suppl No 1 at 17, see Domínguez-Redondo, Elvira, “Rethinking the Legal Foundations of Control in International Human Rights Law: The Case of Special Procedures” (2011) 29:3 Nethl Q HR 261.Google Scholar

15 On the criticisms and legal questions raised regarding the decision of the former UN Commission on Human Rights to use its own members (governmental representatives) as mandate holders of the first “special procedures,” see van Boven, Theo, “Fact-Finding in the Field of Human Rights” (1973) 3 Israel YB Human Rights 93 at 97–101 Google Scholar; Miller, Robert, “United Nations Fact-Finding Missions in the Field of Human Rights” (1970–73) 5 Australian YB Int’l L 40 at 44, 54.Google Scholar See also “Membership of the Working Group on Enforced and Involuntary Disappearances: Opinion of the Office of Legal Affairs (dated 15 September 1989),” in Ramcharan, Bretram G, ed, The Principle of Legality in International Human Rights Institutions: Selected Legal Opinions (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1997) 135.Google Scholar

16 On the emphasis placed on dialogue and co-operation in the mandates of special procedures and the humanitarian element of their work, see Ramcharan, Bertram, The Protection Role of UN Human Rights Special Procedures (The Hague: Brill, 2009).Google Scholar

17 Addo, Michael K, “Practice of the Human Rights Treaty Bodies in the Reconciliation of Cultural Diversity with Universal Respect for Human Rights” (2010) 32:3 Hum Rts Q 601.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

18 Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, 1465 UNTS 85, Can TS 1987 No 36 (in force 26 June 1987) [Convention against Torture]; Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, UN Doc A/61/611 (2006) (in force 3 May 2008); Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, 2131 UNTS 83 (in force 22 December 2000). The Committee on Economic Social and Cultural Rights now also has this power under Article 11 of the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights, UN Doc A/63/435 (2008) (in force 5 May 2013).

19 See ECOSOC Resolution 624B (XXII), ESCOR 22nd Sess, UN Doc E/2929 (1 August 1956) Suppl No 1 at 12; UN Commission on Human Rights, Annual Reports on Human Rights, Res I, UN Doc E/2844-3/CN/4/731 (1956). The most important reform to the reporting system was introduced by ECOSOC Resolution 1074C (XXXIX), ESCOR 39th Sess, UN Doc E/4117 (28 July 1965) Suppl No 1 at 23. See also ECOSOC Resolution 728B (XXVIII), ESCOR 28th Sess, UN Doc E/3290 (30 July 1959) Suppl No 1 at 18; ECOSOC Declaration 1596 (L), ESCOR 50th Sess, UN Doc E/5044 (21 May 1971) Suppl No 1 at 20; and ECOSOC Res 1978/20, ESCOR 1978, UN Doc E/1978/78 (5 May 1978) Suppl No 1 at 27. See further Alston, Philip, “Reconceiving the UN Human Rights Regime: Challenges Confronting the New UN Human Rights Council” (2006) 7:1 Melbourne J Int’l L 185 at 207–15.Google Scholar

20 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, GA Res 217A(III), UNGAOR, 3d Sess, Supp No 13, UN Doc A/810 (1948).

21 Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, GA Res 1514(XV), UN Doc A/RES/1514(XV) (14 December 1960).

22 Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, GA Res 1904(XVIII), UN Doc A/RES/1904(XVIII) (20 November 1963).

23 ECOSOC Resolution 1074C (XXXIX), supra note 19 at para 3. See also Trindade, Antônio Cançado, “Co-Existence and Co-Ordination of Mechanisms of International Protection of Human Rights (at Global and Regional Levels)” (1987) 202:II Rec des Cours 302.Google Scholar

24 See Boerefijn, Ineke, The Reporting Procedure under the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Practice and Procedures of the Human Rights Committee (Antwerp: Intersentia-Hart, 1999) at 9–13 Google Scholar; Farer, Tom J, “The UN and Human Rights: More Than a Whimper, Less Than a Roar” in Roberts, Adam and Kingsbury, Benedict, eds, United Nations, Divided World (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988) 95 at 123–24Google Scholar; Haver, Peter, “The United Nations Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities” (1982) 21:1 Colum J Transnat’l L 103 at 117–19Google Scholar; Hoare, Samuel, “The UN Commission on Human Rights” in Luard, Evan, ed, The International Protection of Human Rights (London: Thames and Hudson) 59 at 79–87 Google Scholar; Schreiber, Marc, “La pratique récente des Nations Unies dans le domaine de la protection des droits de l’homme” (1975) 145:II Rec des Cours 297 at 325–32Google Scholar; Sohn, Louis B, “Human Rights: Their Implementation and Supervision by the United Nations” in Meron, Theodor, ed, Human Rights in International Law: Legal and Policy Issues, volume 2 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984) 369 at 373.Google Scholar

25 For decisions terminating the mechanism, see GA Resolution 35/209, UN Doc A/RES/35/209 (17 December 1980), followed by UN Commission on Human Rights Declaration 10 (XXXVII) (13 March 1981) and ECOSOC Declaration 1981/151 , ESCOR 1981, UN Doc E/1981/81 (8 May 1981) Suppl No 1 at 46. See also Lempinen, Miko and Scheinin, Martin, The New Human Rights Council: The First Two Years (Turku: Abo Akademi University Institute for Human Rights, 2007) at 14–15.Google Scholar

26 See HRC Resolution 5/1, UN Doc A/HRC/RES/5/1 (18 June 2007). See also Elvira Domínguez-Redondo, “La Comisión de Derechos Humanos a Debate: el procedimiento 1503 [“Future of the UN Commission on Human Rights: 1503 procedure”] (2006) 2 Revista Iberoamericana de Derechos Humanos 34.

27 The possibility of inter-state complaints is foreseen in the Convention against Torture, supra note 18, art 21; the International Convention on the Rights of Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, 2220 UNTS 3 (in force 1 July 2003), art 74; the International Convention on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, 660 UNTS 195 (in force 4 January 1969), arts 11–13; the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, 999 UNTS 171 (in force 23 March 1976), arts 41–43; the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, UN Doc A/61/488 (2006) (in force 23 December 2010), art 32; and the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, supra note 18, art 10.

28 See Domínguez-Redondo, supra note 10 at 684–85. See also Higgins, Rosalyn, “Human Rights in the International Court of Justice” (2007) 20:4 Leiden J Int’l L 745.Google Scholar

29 On the criticisms expressed, see Domínguez-Redondo, supra note 10 at 679–80.

30 By April 2013, the only country not to have participated as a state under review was Israel (in the fifteenth session in January 2013).

31 McMahon, supra note 8 at 13.

32 “Universal Periodic Review: On the Road to Implementation” (2013) at 5, online: <http://www.upr-info.org/IMG/pdf/2012_on_the_road_to_implementation.pdf> [“UPR”].

33 Smith, Rhona, “To See Themselves As Others See Them”: The Five Permanent Members of the Security Council and the Human Rights Council’s Universal Periodic Review” (2013) 35:1 Hum Rts Q 1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

34 Castellino, Joshua, “No Room at the International Table: The Importance of Designing Effective Litmus Tests for Minority Protection at Home” (2013) 35:1 Hum Rts Q 201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

35 The first ever UN resolution addressing human rights violations based on sexual orientation was adopted in June 2011. HRC, Human Rights, Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity, UN HRC Res 17/19, UNGAOR, 17th Sess, UN Doc A/HRC/Res/17/19 (2011).

36 For an analysis of the treatment of lesbians, gays, bisexuals, and transsexuals during the first eight sessions of the UPR, see UPR, “Issue Analysis: Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, Transsexuals” (2011), online: <http://www.upr-info.org/IMG/pdf/issue_analysis_lgbts.pdf>. Minority rights are among the top ten issues raised during the UPR process. See McMahon, supra note 8 at 20.

37 On the meaning of peer review in academia and within different inter-governmental bodies, among others, see Arredondo, Tamara Lewis, “The Universal Periodic Review Mechanism of the United Nations Human Rights Council: Transforming the Human Rights Discourse” (PhD thesis, Maastricht University, 2013) at 85–108 Google Scholar [unpublished]. On the meaning attached to the expression “peer review” or the finally adopted “periodic review” for the UPR, see Gaer, Felice D, “A Voice Not an Echo: Universal Periodic Review and the UN Treaty Body System” (2007) 7:1 Human Rights LR 109 at 112–21.Google Scholar On the position of regional groups regarding this issue, see Claire Doole and Gasparini, Juan, “Enhancing Council Credibility,” Infosud Human Rights Tribune, (2006) online <http://www.infosud.org/Enhancing-Council-credibility,862>.Google Scholar

38 Schabas, William, “Introductory Essay: The Drafting and Significance of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights” in Schabas, William, ed, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Travaux Préparatoires, volume 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013) xxi.CrossRefGoogle Scholar Universal Declaration of Human Rights, supra note 20.

39 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, supra note 20.

40 Franck, Thomas, “The Emerging Right to Democratic Governance” (1992) 86:1 AJIL 46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

41 Sen, Amartya, Development As Freedom (New York: Anchor Books, 1999).Google Scholar

42 See Henkin, Louis, The Age of Rights (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996) at 13–29.Google Scholar

43 See d’Aspremont, Jean, “The Foundations of the International Legal Order” (2007) 18 Finnish YB Int’l L 219 at 219.Google Scholar See also d’Aspremont, Jean, “Re-inforcing the (Neo-) Hobbesian Representations of International Law” (2010) 13 J Int’l Relations & Development 85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

44 Anghie, Antony and Chimni, BS, “Third World Approaches to International Law and Individual Responsibility in Internal Conflicts” (2003) 2:1 Chinese J Int’l L 77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

45 Morsink, Johannes, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights: Origins, Drafting and Intent (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999) at ix.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

46 Pollis, Adamantia and Schwab, Peter, “Human Rights: A Western Construct with Limited Applicability” in Pollis, Adamantia and Schwab, Peter, eds, Human Rights: Cultural and Ideological Perspectives (New York: Praeger, 1979) 1.Google Scholar

47 Zakaria, Fareed, “Culture Is Destiny: Conversation with Lee Kuan Yew” (1994) 83 Foreign Affairs 109.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

48 See, for example, Callaway, RL, “The Rhetoric of Asian Values” in Callaway, RL and Harrelson-Stephens, J, eds, Exploring International Human Rights: Essential Readings (Boulder, CO: Lynne Reinner Publishers, 2007)Google Scholar; Zakaria, Fareed, “The Dustbin of History: Asian Values” (2012) Foreign Policy 1.Google Scholar

49 See, for example, Mazrui, Ali, “Islamic and Western Values” (1997) Foreign Affairs 76 Google Scholar; Mazrui, Ali, Islam Between Globalization and Counterterrorism (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2004).Google Scholar

50 Diamond, Larry, Plattner, Marc F, and Brumberg, Daniel, eds, Islam and Democracy in the Middle East (Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press, 2003) at xii.Google Scholar

51 Osabu-Kle, Daniel T, Compatible Cultural Democracy: The Key of Development in Africa (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000).Google Scholar

52 Vienna Declaration and Program of Action, 12 July 1993, UN Doc A/CONF.154/23 at para 5.

53 Donnelly, Jack, “The Relative Universality of Human Rights” (2007) 29:2 Hum Rts Q 281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

54 Goodhart, Michael, “Human Rights and Global Democracy” (2008) 22:4 Ethics & Int’l Affairs 395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

55 Brown, Michael F, “Cultural Relativism 2.0” (2008) 49:3 Current Anthropology 363 at 371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

56 Pollis, Adamantia, “A New Universalism” in Adamantia Pollis and Peter Schwab, eds, Human Rights: New Perspectives, New Realities (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000) 9.Google Scholar

57 Bedau, Hugo A, “Human Rights and Foreign Assistance Programs” in Brown, Peter G and Maclean, Douglas, eds, Human Rights and US Foreign Policy (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1979) 29.Google Scholar

58 Shue, Henry, Basic Rights: Subsistence, Affluence and US Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996) at 52.Google Scholar

59 Vasak, Karel, “Human Rights: A Thirty Year Struggle — The Sustained Efforts to Give Force of Law to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights” (1977) UNESCO Courier 29.Google Scholar

60 See Claude, Richard P and Weston, Burns H, eds, Human Rights in the World Community, 3rd edition (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2006) at 19–20.Google Scholar

61 American Anthropological Association, “Declaration on Anthropology and Human Rights” ( June 1999), online: <http://www.aaanet.org/about/Policies/statements/Declaration-on-Anthropology-and-Human-Rights.cfm>. See further Engle, Karen, “From Skepticism to Embrace: Human Rights and the American Anthropological Association from 1947–1999” (2001) 23:3 Hum Rts Q 536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

62 Rubenstein, Leonard S, “How International Human Rights Organizations Can Advance Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: A Response to Kenneth Roth” (2004) 26:4 Hum Rts Q 845.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

63 Ibhawoh, Bonny, “Beyond Naming and Shaming: Methodological Imperatives of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights Advocacy” (2008) African YB Int’l L 49.Google Scholar

64 Addo, supra note 17 at 608–10, focusing in particular on the work of Preis, Ann-Belinda S, “Human Rights As Cultural Practice: An Anthropological Critique” (1996) 18 Hum Rts Q 286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

65 Addo, supra note 17 at 610–12, relying on the following works to sustain his arguments: An-Na’im, Abdullahi, Human Rights in Cross-Cultural Perspectives: A Quest for Consensus (Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995)Google Scholar; An-Na’im, Abdullahi, “Religious Minorities under Islamic Law and the Limits of Cultural Relativism” (1987) 9 Hum Rts Q 1 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; An-Na’im, Abdullahi, “Human Rights in the Muslim World: Socio-Political Conditions and Scriptural Imperatives” (1990) 3 Harv Hum Rts J 13.Google Scholar

66 Addo, supra note 17 at 612–13, based on arguments developed in Brems, Eva, “Reconciling Universality and Diversity in International Human Rights: A Theoretical and Methodological Framework and its Application in the Context of Islam” in Sajó, Adrás, ed, Human Rights with Modesty: the Problem of Universalism (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 2004) 213.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

67 Addo, supra note 17 at 613–14. This approach is articulated by Donoho, Douglas L in “Relativism Versus Universalism in Human Rights: The Search for Meaningful Standards” (1990–91) 27 Stanford Journal of International Law 345.Google Scholar

68 Addo, supra note 17 at 613–14..

69 Simmons, Beth A, Mobilizingfor Human Rights: International Law in Domestic Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009) at 80–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

70 Israel returned to the UPR a few months later, in November 2013.

71 Simmons, supra note 69.

72 Conversely, increasing evidence seems to point in a totally different direction. See Domínguez-Redondo, supra note 10; McMahon, supra note 8.

73 Addo, supra note 17 at 602, 614–15.

74 See “UPR,” supra note 32; Domínguez-Redondo, supra note 10; McMahon, supra note 8. These include some specific examples of changes that have occurred in state promotion of human rights as a result of the UPR.

75 Tomuschat, Christian, Human Rights: Between Idealism and Realism, 2nd edition (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008) at 71.Google Scholar

76 While similar works with different conclusions have proliferated since, the first relevant attempt to test empirically the effectiveness of the UN human rights machinery was undertaken by Hathaway, Oona, “Do Human Rights Treaties Make a Difference?” (2002) 112 Yale LJ 1935.Google Scholar

77 See “UPR,” supra note 32; McMahon, supra note 8.

78 On the impact of the UPR on equal treatment of states, see Smith, Rhona, “Equality of ‘Nations Large and Small’: Testing the Theory of the Universal Periodic Review in the Asia-Pacific” (2011) 2 Asia Pac J HR & L 36.Google Scholar

79 See, for example, Posner, Eric A, “Some Skeptical Comments on Beth Simmon’s ‘Mobilizing for Human Rights’” (2010) 44:3 NYUJ Int’l L & Pol 819 Google Scholar; Goodman, Ryan and Jinks, Derek, “Measuring the Effects of Human Rights Treaties” (2003) 14:1 EJIL 171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

80 See McMahon, supra note 8.

81 On the concept and its consequences in terms of responsibility, see Posner, Eric A, “Erga Omnes Norms, Institutionalization and Constitutionalism in International Law” (2009) 165 J Institutional & Theoretical Economics 5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

82 See Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Fifty-third Session, UNGAOR, 53d Sess, UN Doc A/56/10 (2001) at 318.

83 Orford, Anne, Reading Humanitarian Intervention: Human Rights and the Use of Force in International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

84 Evans, Gareth, The Responsibility to Protect: Ending Mass Atrocity Crimes Once and For All (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Orford, Anne, International Authority and the Responsibility to Protect (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

85 2005 World Summit Outcome, GA Res 60/1, UNGAOR, 60th Sess, UN Doc A/Res/60/1 (2005) at paras 139–45.

86 See UNSC Resolution 1973, 6498th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1973 (2011) and UNSC Resolution 1975, 6508th Mtg, UN Doc S/Res/1975 (2011).

87 Reinold, Theresa, Sovereignty and the Responsibility to Protect (New York: Routledge, 2013) at 153.Google Scholar

88 Henkin, Louis, “Human Rights and State ‘Sovereignty’” (1995–96) 25 Ga J Int & Comp L 31 Google Scholar; see also Henkin, Louis, “That ‘S’ Word: Sovereignty, and Globalization, and Human Rights, et cetera” (1999–2000) 68:1 Fordham L Rev 1.Google Scholar Other commentators arguing in a similar direction include Reisman, Michael W, “Sovereignty and Human Rights in Contemporary International Law” (1999) 84:4 AJIL 866 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ermacora, Felix, “Human Rights and Domestic Jurisdiction (Article 2, Paragraph 7 of the Charter)” (1968) 124:II Rec des Cours 371 Google Scholar; Higgins, Rosalyn, The Development of International Law through the Political Organs of the United Nations (London: Oxford University Press, 1963) at 118–30.Google Scholar

89 On the use of Article 2(7) by states before the UN General Assembly and the former Commission on Human Rights between 1975 and 1991, see Kamminga, Menno T, Inter-State Accountability for Violations of Human Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992) at 88–111.Google Scholar

90 Peters, Anne, “Humanity as the A and B of Sovereignty” (2009) 20:3 EJIL 513 at 543.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

91 Ibid.

92 Ibid at 544.

93 Wellens, Karel, “Revisiting Solidarity as a (Re-)Emerging Constitutional Principle: Some Further Reflections” in Wolfrum, Rüdiger and Kojima, Chie, eds, Solidarity: A Structural Principle of International Law (Heidelberg: Springer, 2010) 3 at 10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

94 Deng, Francis M et al, Sovereignty as Responsibility: Conflict Management in Africa (Washington DC: Brookings Institution, 1996) at xviiGoogle Scholar; on the gradual erosion of sovereignty, see also 6–10.

95 Orford, supra note 84 at 178.

96 Simmons, supra note 69 at 27–31.

97 Ibid at 27.

98 For commentary on the conceptual flaws and political limits of Anne Peters’ proposal, see White, Emily Kidd et al, “Humanity as the A (Alpha) and (Omega) of Sovereignty: Four Replies to Anne Peters’ Special Anniversary Article” (2009) 20:3 EJIL 545.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

99 See UN General Assembly Resolution 63/308, UN Doc A/RES/63/308 (2009); UN Secretary-General, “Implementing the Responsibility to Protect: Report of the Secretary-General,” UN Doc A/63/677 (2009). On the institutionalization of the concept, see Orford, supra note 84 at 17–22.

100 Orford, supra note 84 at 167–72.

101 UN Secretary-General, supra note 99 at para 11. A very interesting critique to the responsibility-to-protect (R2P) concept as redefining sovereignty and dis-tinguishing sovereignty de facto and de jure,can be found in Moses, Jeremy, “Sovereignty as Irresponsibility? A Realist Critique of the Responsibility to Protect” (2013) 39:1 Rev Int’l Studies 113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

102 Orford, supra note 84 at 3; see also at 103–39, explaining the role of R2P as a tool for recognizing lawful authority.

103 See, for example, Ambassador Vitaly Churkin, President of the Security Council, Press Conference, News and Media: United Nations Webcast, online: <http://www.unmultimedia.org/ tv/webcast/2011/12/press-conference-ambassador-vitaly-churkin-president-of-the-security-council.html>. See also Murphy, John, “Responsibility to Protect (R2P) Comes ofAge? A Sceptic’s View” (2012) 18 ILSA J Int’l & Comp L 413.Google Scholar

104 Hehir, Aidan, “The Permanence of Inconsistency: Libya, the Security Council, and the Responsibility to Protect” (2013) 38:1 Int’l Security 137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

105 Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia, Second Phase, Judgment, [1966] ICJ Rep 6.

106 Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited (Belgium v Spain), [1970] ICJ Rep 3.

107 Case Concerning East Timor (Portugal v Australia), [1995] ICJ Rep 90.

108 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v United States of America), Merits, Judgment, [1986] ICJ Rep 4.

109 See Zemanek, Karl, “New Trends in the Enforcement of Erga Omnes Obligations” (2000) 4 Max Planck YB UN L 1 at 11.Google Scholar

110 Sriram, Chandra Lekha, “Human Rights Claims vs the State: Is Sovereignty Really Eroding?” (2006) 1:1 Interdisciplinary J HR L 107.Google Scholar

111 Reinold, supra note 87 at 155.

112 See Steinberg, Richard H, “Who Is Sovereign?” (2004) 40:2 Stan J Int’l L 329.Google Scholar

113 Weinert, Matthew S, “Bridging the Human Rights-Sovereignty Divide: Theoretical Foundations of a Democratic Sovereignty” (2007) 8:2 HR Rev 5.Google Scholar

114 Stephens, Philip, “Leaders Who Generate Diminishing Returns,” Financial Times (19 January 2012) at 7, online: Financial Times <http://www.ft.com>.Google Scholar

115 Koskenniemi, Martti, “What Use for Sovereignty Today” (2011) 1:1 Asian J Int’l L 61 at 68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

116 Coicaud, Jean-Marc, “Making Sense of National Interest and International Solidarity” in Coicaud, Jean-Marc and Wheeler, Nicholas J, eds, National Interest and International Solidarity: Particular and Universal Ethics in International Life (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2008) 288 at 289.Google Scholar See also Chesterman, Simon, Ignatieff, Michael, and Thakur, Ramesh, eds, Making States Work: State Failure and the Crisis of Governance (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2005) at 1, 359.Google Scholar

117 Alvarez, José A, “State Sovereignty Is Not Withering Away: A Few Lessons for the Future” in Cassese, Antonio, ed, Realizing Utopia: The Future of International Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012) 26 at 31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

118 Ibid at 32.

119 Ibid at 34.

120 See Domínguez-Redondo, supra note 10 at 679–80.

121 Domínguez-Redondo, supra note 14 at 274–75. See also Alston, supra note 19 at 204–7.

122 See Lempinen, supra note 8.

123 International Service for Human Rights, “Human Rights Monitor, no 64/2008” (2008) at 11.

124 Democracy Coalition Project, “Human Rights Council Report Card: Government Positions on Key Issues 2008-2009” (2009), online: <http://www.demcoalition.org/site09-2008/2005_html/unhrc-related-documents.html>. See also Scheipers, Sibylle SS, “Civilization vs Toleration: The New UN Human Rights Council and the Normative Foundations of the International Order” (2007) 10:3 J Int’l Relations & Development 219 at 234–36.Google Scholar

125 Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1577 UNTS 3, Can TS 1992 No 3, 28 ILM 1457 (in force 2 September 1990). On the concerns about US sovereignty in relation to every human rights convention and this one in particular, see Rutkow, Lainie and Lozman, Joshua T, “Suffer the Children? A Call for the United States Ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child” (2006) 19 Harv Hum Rts J 161.Google Scholar

126 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2515 UNTS 3, Can TS 2010 No 8, 46 ILM 443 (in force 3 May 2008). Senator Mike Lee led the opposition to ratification of the convention in the US Senate on 4 December 2012 using the argument that ratification would pose a threat to American sovereignty. Abrams, Jim, “Disability Treaty Downed by Republican Opposition,” Huffington Post (4 December 2012), online: Huffington Post <http://www.huffingtonpost.com>.Google Scholar See also Chaffin, Sally, “Challenging the United States Position on a United Nations Convention on Disability” (2006) 15 Temp Pol & Civ Rts L Rev 121.Google Scholar

127 See Report of the Chairperson of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, UN Doc E/CN.4/2006/120 (26 February 2006).

128 Donald, Alice, Gordon, Jane, and Leach, Philip, “The UK and the European Court of Human Rights,” Research Report 83 (2012) Equality and Human Rights Commission 126.Google Scholar

129 See, for instance, the portrayal of the post-Cold War era as a “Westphalian order” versus an emerging “Eastphalian” order based on what it is described as a “Western-inspired effort to limit sovereignty and qualify the principle of noninterference” using international law standards such as human rights, humani-tarian intervention, or the responsibility to protect. Kim, Sung Won, Human Security with an Asian Face? (2010) 17:1 Ind J Global Legal Stud 83 at 85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

130 Engle, Karen, “Culture and Human Rights: The Asian Values Debate in Context” (2000) 32:2 NYUJ Int’l L & Pol 291 Google Scholar; see also Castellino, Joshua and Domínguez-Redondo, Elvira, Minority Rights in Asia: A Comparative Legal Analysis (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006) at 11–26.Google Scholar

131 See Cerna, Christina M, “Universality of Human Rights and Cultural Diversity: Implementation of Human Rights in Different Socio-Cultural Contexts” (1994) 16:3 Hum Rts Q 740 at 740 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Otto, Diane, “Rethinking the Universality of Human Rights Law” (1997) 29:1 Colum HRL Rev 1 at 10, n 46.Google Scholar Confirming the list based on the UPR review, see Blackburn, Roger Lloret, Cultural Relativism in the Universal Periodic Review of the Human Rights Council, ICIP Working Papers 2011/ 03 (Barcelona: Institut Català por la Pau, 2011) at 9, 14, online: <http://www.icpt.cat>.Google Scholar

132 The divisive HRC Resolution on Promoting Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms through a Better Understanding of Traditional Values of Humankind,” HRC Resolution 12/21, UNGAOR, 12th Sess, UN Doc A/HRC/RES/12/21 (2009), was sponsored by Russia and co-sponsored by Bolivia, Cuba, Algeria, Bangladesh, Belarus, Burundi, Cameroon, Chad, China, Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Gabon, Iran, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon, Madagascar, Malaysia, Morocco, Myanmar, Nigeria, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, Vietnam, and Zambia.

133 Alvarez, supra note 117 at 36.

134 McMahon, Edward R, “Herding Cats and Sheep: Assessing State and Regional Behavior in the Universal Periodic Review of the United Nations Human Rights Council” (2010) at 1, 15, Table 5, online: UPR <http://www.upr-info.org/IMG/pdf/McMahon_Herding_Cats_and_Sheeps_July_2010.pdf>.Google Scholar

135 See, for example, Neumayer, Eric, “Do International Human Rights Treaties Improve Respect for Human Rights” (2005) 49 J Confl Resolution 925 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Simmons, supra note 69.

136 Spain, Anna, “Integration Matters: Rethinking the Architecture of International Dispute Resolution” (2010) 32:1 U Pennsylvania J Int’l L 1.Google Scholar

137 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Report of the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review: Equatorial Guinea, 6th Sess, UN Doc A/ HRC/16/13 (2010) at 20.

138 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, Report of the Working Group on the Universal Periodic Review: Sudan, 11th Sess, UN Doc A/HRC/18/16 (2011) at 16.

139 Africa Peer Review Mechanism, Country Review Report of the Republic of Kenya (2006) at 325.

140 Africa Peer Review Mechanism, Country Review Report of Burkina Faso (2008) at 400.

141 Some related issues in UPR recommendations include asylum seekers, corruption, counter-terrorism, detention conditions, enforced disappearances, extrajudicial executions, freedom of association and of the press, extra-judicial human rights violations by state agents, and internally displaced people.

142 For a seminal report on this subject, see Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, Preventing Deadly Conflict: Final Report (Washington DC: Carnegie Corporation, 1997).

143 See, for example, Pagani, Fabrizio, “Peer Review: A Tool for Cooperation and Change—An Analysis of the OECD Working Method” (2002) OECD Secretary General, online: <http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/33/16/1955285.pdf>;Google Scholar Herbert, Ross and Gruzd, Steven, The African Peer Review Mechanism: Lessons from the Pioneers (Johannesburg, South Africa: South African Institute for International Affairs, 2008)Google Scholar; Chene, Marie and Dell, Gillian, “Comparative Assessment of Anti-Corruption Conventions’ Review Mechanisms: U4 Expert Answer,” Transparency International (2008), online: <http://www.u4.no/publications/comparative-assessment-of-anti-corruption-conventions-review-mechanisms/ downloadasset/369>.Google Scholar

144 Sarkin, Jeremy and Paterson, Mark, “Africa’s Responsibility to Protect: Introduction” (2010) 2:4 Global Responsibility to Protect 339 at 352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

145 Gierycz, Dorota, NUPI Report: The Responsibility to Protect: A Legal and Rights-Based Perspective (Oslo, Norway: Norwegian Institute of International Affairs, 2008).Google Scholar

146 Malan, Mark, “Conflict Prevention in Africa: Theoretical Construct or Plan of Action? KAIPTC Paper 3 (2005) at 6. at 14, online: <http://www.kaiptc.org/Publications/Occasional-Papers/Documents/no_3.aspx>.Google Scholar

147 Tomuschat, supra note 75 at 71.

148 Domínguez-Redondo, supra note 10 at 703–5.

149 Lauren, Paul Gordon, The Evolution of International Human Rights (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003).Google Scholar

150 Posner, Eric A, “Human Rights, the Laws ofWar and Reciprocity” (2013) 6:2 Law & Ethics of Human Rights 147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

151 Zemanek, supra note 109 at 16.

152 Simmons, supra note 69 at 375.

153 See, for example, the remarks of Laura Laserre, president of the Human Rights Council, “Closing Comments, UPR Report of Bahrain, 13th Universal Periodic Review,” Webcast (News and Media, United Nations Webcast, 25 May 2012), online: <http://www.unmultimedia.org/tv/webcast/2012/05/closing-com-ments-upr-report-of-bahrain-13th-universal-periodic-review.html>.