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“Incurable Megalomania” and “Fantasies of Expansion”: The German Army Reimagines Empire in Occupied Poland, 1915–1918

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 December 2021

Mark T. Kettler Open the ORCID record for Mark T. Kettler [Opens in a new window]
Mark T. Kettler*
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University of Notre Dame, Email: mkettler@nd.edu
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Abstract

Plans for a Polish “border strip” are frequently cited to argue that the German army entered the First World War committed to pacifying conquered space through Germanization. This article contends that, in 1914, the German officer corps did not understand national homogeneity as essential for imperial security. Many influential officers insisted that Polish identity was compatible with German imperial loyalty. They supported a multinational imperial model, proposing to trade Poland its cultural and political autonomy for the acceptance of German suzerainty in foreign policy and military command. The army's preference for Germanizing space developed during the occupation of Russian Poland, as officers learned to conflate diversity with imperial fragility. Only a series of political crises after 1916 shifted military opinion against multinational imperialism. Increasingly convinced that Poland would betray the German Empire, some officers abandoned multinationalism. Others revised their plans to contain Poland and fortify Germany by annexing and Germanizing Polish space.

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Article
Information
Central European History , Volume 54 , Issue 4 , December 2021 , pp. 621 - 645
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Central European History Society of the American Historical Association

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108 GGW, “Minutes of the Joint Meeting of Military Governors of the GGW, 22 August 1916,” 25–26.

109 GGW, “Minutes of the Joint Meeting of Military Governors of the GGW, 22 August 1916,” 25–27.

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112 von der Ropp, “Letter to Governor General von Beseler, 9 October 1916,” October 9, 1916, 9, N30/21, BArch.

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114 Studnicki, Open Letter to Hans Hartwig von Beseler and the German Imperial Government from Polish Representatives, 5 August 1916,” 121.

115 GGW, “Report on Public Assembly of the ‘Klub Der Anhänger Des Polnischen Staatswesens,’” September 1916, 5, N30/13, BArch; Hans Hartwig von Beseler, “Report to the Chancellor, 5 September 1916,” September 5, 1916, 6, N30/13, BArch; von Beseler, “Immediatberichte des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 23 Juli 1916,” 123–25.

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117 von Beseler, “Immediatbericht des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 23 Januar 1916,” 52–55.

118 von Pokrziwnitzki, “Warsaw Police Station Report on Political Activity in Warsaw in July 1916,” 134.

119 von Beseler, “Letter to Clara von Beseler, 29 January 1916,” 8.

120 von Beseler, “Immediatbericht des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 23 Januar 1916,” 52.

121 Generalgouvernement Warschau, “Das Parteiwesen in Kongresspolen,” 2; von Beseler, “Immediatbericht des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 23 Januar 1916,” 53.

122 Generalgouvernement Warschau, “Das Parteiwesen in Kongresspolen,” 3; von Beseler, “Immediatberichte des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 23 Juli 1916,” 122.

123 Herwarth von Bittenfeld, “Polen,” 92, 101.

124 Generalgouvernement Warschau, “Das Parteiwesen in Kongresspolen,” 3.

125 Herwarth von Bittenfeld, “Polen,” 96.

126 von Beseler, “Immediatbericht des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 23 Januar 1916,” 53; von Beseler, “‘Konzept’ on Polish Question Sent to Chancellor,” 83.

127 Herwarth von Bittenfeld, “Polen,” 96; von Beseler, “Immediatbericht des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 23 Januar 1916,” 52, 56.

128 von Beseler, “Immediatbericht des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 23 Januar 1916,” 56; von Beseler, “Immediatberichte des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 23 Juli 1916,” 124.

129 von Hindenburg, “Hindenburg an Reichskanzler,” 29.

130 Ludendorff, “Letter to Undersecretary Arthur Zimmermann, 27 August 1915,” 201.

131 Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, “Letter to Hans Hartwig von Beseler, 13 August 1916,” August 13, 1916, 119, N30/12, BArch.

132 Geiss, Der polnische Grenzstreifen, 1914–1918, 107–9.

133 Herwarth von Bittenfeld, “Polen,” 106, 113.

134 Herwarth von Bittenfeld, “Polen,” 107.

135 von Beseler, “Immediatbericht des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 23 Januar 1916,” 54–55.

136 von Beseler, “Immediatberichte des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 23 Juli 1916,” 123–24.

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138 von Bethmann Hollweg, “Letter to Hans Hartwig von Beseler, 13 August 1916,” 119.

139 Prussian Staatsministerium, “Staatsministerium Minutes, 8 October 1916,” 131.

140 von Treutler, “Report to the Foreign Office, 23 January 1916,” 54; Herwarth von Bittenfeld, “Polen,” 105–6; von Beseler, “Immediatbericht des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 23 Januar 1916,” 52; von Seeckt, “Denkschrift ‘Die Teilung Polens,’” 2–4.

141 Herwarth von Bittenfeld, “Polen,” 105–06.

142 Ludendorff, “Letter to Undersecretary Arthur Zimmermann, 20 October 1915,” 346.

143 von Treutler, “Report to the Foreign Office, 23 January 1916,” 55.

144 von Beseler, “Immediatberichte des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 23 Juli 1916,” 125.

145 Geiss, Der polnische Grenzstreifen, 1914–1918, 35; Hans Hartwig von Beseler, “Letter to Erich von Falkenhayn, 23 August 1916,” August 23, 1916, 30, N30/10, BArch; Erich von Falkenhayn, “Letter to Hans Hartwig von Beseler, August 1916,” August 1916, 24, N30/10, BArch.

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147 Kauffman, Elusive Alliance, 82.

148 Kauffman, Elusive Alliance, 82–83.

149 Strantz, “Die Deutsche Politik gegenüber den Polen. Gutachten aus Lodz,” November 29, 1916, 135–36, R1501/119795, BArch; Deputy General Command of the V. Army Corps, “Report on the Polish-Speaking Population of Prussia, Relayed to the Chancellery by the War Ministry 20 February 1917,” February 2, 1917, 135, R1501/119790, BArch.

150 Geiss, Der polnische Grenzstreifen, 1914–1918, 38; Reichskanzlei, “Sitzung im Reichskanzler-Palais, Dienstag den 13. Febr. 17, 5 Uhr Nachmittag,” February 13, 1917, 91–93, N30/14, BArch.

151 Hans Hartwig von Beseler, “Immediatberichte des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 13 April 1917,” April 13, 1917, 138–39, N30/9, BArch.)

152 Hans Hartwig von Beseler, “Bericht des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 20 Dezember 1916,” December 20, 1916, 19, R1501/119710, BArch.

153 von Beseler, “Bericht des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 20 Dezember 1916,” 20–22.

154 von Beseler, “Bericht des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 20 Dezember 1916,” 22.

155 Military Government of Łomża, “Report to Hans Hartwig von Beseler, 21 November 1916,” November 21, 1916, 109–11, N30/21, BArch.

156 Kreischef of Łomża, “Report to the Civil Administration of the GGW, December 1916,” December 1916, 93, R1501/119718, BArch.

157 Kreischef of Łomża, “Report to the Civil Administration of the GGW, December 1916,” 93.

158 Strantz, “Die Deutsche Politik Gegenüber Den Polen,” 136.

159 von Beseler, “Bericht des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau, 20 Dezember 1916,” 16–17.

160 von Beseler, “Immediatberichte des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 13 April 1917,” 138.

161 von Beseler, “Bericht des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau, 20 Dezember 1916,” 20–22.

162 Hans Hartwig von Beseler, “Report to Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg, 5 January 1917,” January 5, 1917, 15, N30/14, BArch; von Beseler, “Bericht des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau, 20 Dezember 1916,” 22–23.

163 Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, “Telegram to Hans Hartwig von Beseler, 17 November 1916,” November 17, 1916, 170, N30/13, BArch.

164 Kauffman, Elusive Alliance, 91.

165 von Beseler, “Report to Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg, 5 January 1917,” 9–10.

166 von Beseler, “Ansprache des Generalgouverneurs Hans von Beseler in Warschau, 15 Dezember 1916,” 2–5, 10–16.

167 Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, “Letter to Hans Hartwig von Beseler, 17 January 1917,” January 17, 1917, 23, N30/14, BArch.

168 Reichskanzlei, “Sitzung im Reichskanzler-Palais, Dienstag den 13. Febr. 17, 5 Uhr Nachmittag,” 86–91.

169 Reichskanzlei, “Sitzung im Reichskanzler-Palais, Dienstag den 13. Febr. 17, 5 Uhr Nachmittag,” 91.

170 Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, “Letter to Hans Hartwig von Beseler, 9 May 1917,” May 9, 1917, 163, N30/14, BArch.

171 von Beseler, “Bericht des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau, 20 Dezember 1916,” 21.

172 Hans Hartwig von Beseler, “Letter to Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg, 24 January 1917,” January 24, 1917, 37, N30/14, BArch.

173 Hans Hartwig von Beseler, “Note to Paul von Hindenburg, 6 June 1917,” June 6, 1917, 44, N30/11, BArch; von Beseler, “Immediatberichte des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 13 April 1917,” 140.

174 von Beseler, “Bericht des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau, 20 Dezember 1916,” 17–18, 22; Hans Hartwig von Beseler, “Letter to Ober Ost Explaining the Political Situation in Poland, 24 November 1916,” November 24, 1916, 126, N30/10, BArch.

175 Reichskanzlei, “Sitzung im Reichskanzler-Palais, Dienstag den 13. Febr. 17, 5 Uhr Nachmittag,” 93.

176 von Beseler, “Letter to Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg, 24 January 1917,” 38.

177 von Beseler, “Letter to Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg, 24 January 1917,” 38.

178 von Beseler, “Letter to Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg, 24 January 1917,” 38.

179 Kauffman, Elusive Alliance, 91.

180 Kauffman, Elusive Alliance, 71, 99.

181 Kauffman, Elusive Alliance, 102.

182 Broszat, Zweihundert Jahre Deutsche Polenpolitik, 146; Kauffman, Elusive Alliance, 103.

183 Press Department of the GGW, “Report on Underground Press Activity Following the July Mutiny,” July 17, 1917, 98, R1501/119831, BArch.

184 Kauffman, Elusive Alliance, 103.

185 Nethe, “Letter to Chancellor Hertling, 29 December 1917,” December 29, 1917, 214, R1501/119831, BArch.

186 Hans Hartwig von Beseler, “Immediatberichte des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 13 October 1917,” October 13, 1917, 182, N30/9, BArch.

187 von Beseler, “Immediatberichte des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 13 October 1917,” 183.

188 Erich Ludendorff, “Memorandum Regarding the Continued Formation of the Polish Army, 16 September 1917,” September 16, 1917, 165, R1501/119831, BArch.

189 Vermeiren, Jan, The First World War and German National Identity: The Dual Alliance at War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 253CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

190 Nethe, “Bericht an die Nachrichtenabteilung des Auswärtigen Amts,” August 4, 1917, 140, R1501/119831, BArch.

191 Nethe, “Letter to the Imperial Chancellor, 18 August 1917,” August 18, 1917, 139, R1501/119831, BArch.

192 Erich Ludendorff, “Report to Chancellor Michaelis, 21 August 1917,” August 21, 1917, 194, R1501/119791, BArch.

193 Quoted in Vermeiren, The First World War and German National Identity, 254.

194 von Beseler, “Immediatberichte des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 13 October 1917,” 183.

195 Hans Hartwig von Beseler, “Letter to the Chancellery, 5 August 1917,” August 5, 1917, 152, N30/23, BArch.

196 Ludendorff, “Memorandum Regarding the Continued Formation of the Polish Army, 16 September 1917,” 165.

197 Ludendorff, “Memorandum Regarding the Continued Formation of the Polish Army, 16 September 1917,” 166.

198 Ernst von Glasenapp, “Report on the Assembly of the KPP, 19 September 1917,” September 19, 1917, 247, R1501/119791, BArch.

199 von Beseler, “Letter to the Chancellery, 5 August 1917,” 153.

200 Hugo v.u.z. Lerchenfeld-Köfering, “Report on the Formation of the Regency Council, 22 September 1917,” September 22, 1917, 256, R1501/119712, BArch.

201 v.u.z. Lerchenfeld-Köfering, “Report on the Formation of the Regency Council, 22 September 1917,” 259.

202 v.u.z. Lerchenfeld-Köfering, “Report on the Formation of the Regency Council, 22 September 1917,” 260.

203 Wolfgang von Kries, “Minutes of Telephone Call with Theodor Lewald, 19 September 1917,” September 19, 1917, 210, R1501/119712, BArch.

204 von Beseler, “Immediatberichte des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 13 October 1917,” 178–79.

205 von Beseler, “Immediatberichte des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 13 October 1917,” 179.

206 Reichskanzlei, “Protokoll. Konferenz im Reichsamt des Innern vom 22 Januar 1918 über die Frage der Besiedlung eines Grenzstreifens von Polen,” January 22, 1918, 115–18, R43/5124, BArch.

207 Chancellery, “Minutes of Conference in Bellevue Palace, 13 March 1918,” March 13, 1918, 119, R43/2477, BArch; Hans Hartwig von Beseler, “Confidential Report to Chancellor Hertling, 25 March 1918,” March 25, 1918, 6–7, N30/16, BArch.

208 Chancellery, “Minutes of the Foreign Office Conference, 3 November 1917,” November 3, 1917, 35–36, N30/15, BArch.

209 Chancellery, “Minutes of the Foreign Office Conference, 3 November 1917,” 38.

210 Hans Hartwig von Beseler, “Minutes of the Crown Council Meeting in Bellevue Palace, 5 November 1917,” November 5, 1917, 81–82, N30/24, BArch; Hans Hartwig von Beseler, “Further Minutes of the Crown Council Meeting in Bellevue Palace, 5 November 1917,” November 5, 1917, 84–85, N30/24, BArch.

211 Schulze, “Minutes of Conference at the Foreign Office, 4 November 1917,” November 4, 1917, 51, R43/2477, BArch.

212 Chancellery, “Minutes of the Foreign Office Conference, 3 November 1917,” 37.

213 von Beseler, “Minutes of the Crown Council Meeting in Bellevue Palace, 5 November 1917,” 81.

214 Geiss, Der polnische Grenzstreifen, 1914–1918, 119.

215 Chancellery, “Record of Cabinet Conference on War Aims, 23 April 1917,” April 23, 1917, 11, R43/2477, BArch.

216 Chancellery, “Record of Cabinet Conference on War Aims, 23 April 1917,” 11.

217 Reichskanzlei, “Record of the Results of the Discussion on the Polish Question, Held on 3 and 4 November 1917,” November 3, 1917, 40, R43/2477, BArch.

218 Erich Ludendorff, “Letter to War Minister von Stein, 7 September 1917,” September 7, 1917, 120, R1501/119823, BArch.

219 Ludendorff, “Letter to War Minister von Stein, 7 September 1917,” 120.

220 Chancellery, “Minutes of Conference in the RAI, Regarding the Polish Border-Strip, 23 January 1918,” January 23, 1918, 120, R43/5124, BArch; Geiss, Der polnische Grenzstreifen, 1914–1918, 142.

221 Chancellery, “Minutes of the Foreign Office Conference, 3 November 1917,” 44–45.

222 Hermann von Stein, “Letter to Chancellor Michaelis, 1 October 1917,” October 1, 1917, 118, R1501/119823, BArch.

223 Fischer, Germany's Aims in the First World War, 317.

224 Geiss, Der polnische Grenzstreifen, 1914–1918, 119.

225 Fischer, Germany's Aims in the First World War, 347; Paul von Hindenburg, “Letter to Hans Hartwig von Beseler, 16 April 1917,” April 16, 1917, 22, N30/11, BArch.

226 von Beseler, “Immediatberichte des Generalgouverneurs in Warschau über die politische Lage in Polen, 13 April 1917,” 141; von Beseler, “Note to Paul von Hindenburg, 6 June 1917,” 42–43.

227 Chancellery, “Results of the Kreuznach Conference, 17–18 May 1917,” May 18, 1917, 9, R43/2477, BArch.

228 Hans Hartwig von Beseler, “Letter to the Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg, 23 June 1917,” June 23, 1917, 95, R1501/119672, BArch.

229 Reichskanzlei, “Protocol of Conference between the Imperial Chancellor and OHL, Kreuznach,” August 9, 1917, 25, R43/2477, BArch.

230 Erich Ludendorff, “Letter to Chancellor Michaelis, 4 September 1917,” September 4, 1917, 292, R1501/119712, BArch.

231 Reichskanzlei, “Record of the Results of the Discussion on the Polish Question, Held on 3 and 4 November 1917,” 40.

232 Schulze, “Minutes of Conference at the Foreign Office, 4 November 1917,” 49.

233 Reichskanzlei Presseabteilung, “Verhandlungsbericht über die Beratung vom 13. März 1918 vorm. Über die polnische Frage,” March 1918, 121, R43/2477, BArch.

234 Reichskanzlei Presseabteilung, “Verhandlungsbericht über die Beratung vom 13. März 1918 vorm. Über die polnische Frage,” 121–23.

235 Reichskanzlei, “Record of the Results of the Discussion on the Polish Question, Held on 3 and 4 November 1917,” 40; Max Wallraf, “Letter to State Secretary Kühlmann, 14 December 1917,” December 14, 1917, 160–61, R1501/119823, BArch.

236 Chancellery, “Record of Cabinet Conference on War Aims, 23 April 1917,” 11.

237 Erich Ludendorff, “Letter to Chancellor Michaelis, 15 August 1917,” August 15, 1917, 113, R1501/119823, BArch.

238 Erich Ludendorff, “Letter to Chancellor Hertling, 15 November 1917,” November 15, 1917, 122, R1501/119823, BArch; Geiss, Der polnische Grenzstreifen, 1914–1918, 128.

239 Ludendorff, “Letter to Chancellor Hertling, 15 November 1917,” 123.

240 Reichskanzlei, “Konferenz vom 22 Januar 1918 über die Frage der Besiedlung eines Grenzstreifens,” 115.

241 Reichskanzlei, “Konferenz vom 22 Januar 1918 über die Frage der Besiedlung eines Grenzstreifens,” 115.

242 Reichskanzlei, “Konferenz vom 22 Januar 1918 über die Frage der Besiedlung eines Grenzstreifens,” 118.

243 Chancellery, “Minutes of Conference in the RAI to Discuss the Border-Strip, 12 March 1918,” March 12, 1918, 128, R43/5124, BArch.

244 Paul von Hindenburg, “Denkschrift über den polnischen Grenzstreifen,” July 5, 1918, 100, R1501/119824, BArch.

245 Geiss, Der polnische Grenzstreifen, 1914–1918, 142.

246 von Hindenburg, “Denkschrift über den polnischen Grenzstreifen,” 102.

247 von Hindenburg, “Denkschrift über den polnischen Grenzstreifen,” 97–98.

248 von Hindenburg, “Denkschrift über den polnischen Grenzstreifen,” 98.

249 Chancellery, “Minutes of Conference on the Polish Question at Spa, 2–3 July 1918,” July 3, 1918, 195–96, R43/2477, BArch; RAI, “Zur Grenzstreifenfrage,” July 31, 1918, 114, R1501/119824, BArch.

250 Theodor Lewald, “Note on the 9 August Discussions over the Border-Strip,” August 1918, 158, R1501/119824, BArch; RAI, “Zur Grenzstreifenfrage,” 112–13; Chancellery, “Minutes of Conference on the Polish Question at Spa, 2–3 July 1918,” 196; Chancellery, “Minutes of Conference in the RAI to Discuss the Border-Strip, 12 March 1918,” 125–29.

251 Considerations of space permit only a cursory treatment of this question. For a more detailed consideration, please see Kettler, “Losing Faith in Civilization,” 240–41.

252 Robert von Keyserlingk, “Das Schicksal der Russischen Ostseeprovinzen im Interesse des Deutschen Reiches,” October 1914, 172, R43/2476, BArch.

253 Chancellery, “Minutes of Conference with Ober Ost on Baltic Policy, 10–11 March 1918,” March 11, 1918, 98, R43/2477, BArch.

254 Liulevicius, War Land on the Eastern Front, 145.

255 Kettler, “Losing Faith in Civilization,” 371–74.

256 Ludendorff, Erich, Ludendorff's Own Story: August 1914–November 1918, vol. 1 (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1919), 475Google Scholar.

257 Ludendorff, Ludendorff's Own Story, 1:475.

258 Ludendorff, Ludendorff's Own Story, 1:474–75.

259 Ludendorff, Ludendorff's Own Story, 1:475.

260 Ludendorff, Erich, Ludendorff's Own Story: August 1914–November 1918, vol. 2 (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1919), 139–40Google Scholar.

261 Stab des GGWs, “Kurzer historischer Überblick über das Generalgouvernement Warschau (mit Organisationsplan und Aktenverzeichnis) vom Dez. 1914 bis Nov. 1918,” 1923, 45, PH30-II/62, BArch.