Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T19:19:22.975Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Negotiating Sovereignty in German History—Historiographical Challenges

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 April 2022

Rüdiger Graf*
Affiliation:
Leibniz-Zentrum für Zeithistorische Forschung, Potsdam, Germany
Heidi Tworek
Affiliation:
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada

Abstract

This article introduces a special issue on the politics of sovereignty in German history. Historical work provides an important corrective to understand the current discursive resurgence of sovereignty. Historians (and other scholars) should treat sovereignty not as a factual description of the world, but rather analyze it as a rhetorical claim to assert power in territorial, political, economic, legal, and cultural disputes. Much of the power of sovereignty lies in the power to define its boundaries, whether geographical or conceptual. German history offers a particularly fruitful route to historicize the concept, as Germany is arguably both a paradigmatic and a special case in the history of sovereignty. From late-nineteenth-century colonialism to contemporary disputes around gambling restrictions, German discourse on sovereignty has intertwined with and challenged international understandings of sovereignty together with neighboring concepts, such as independence, autonomy, supreme authority, and control. In the twentieth century, perhaps no country experienced stronger affirmations of both sovereignty and the necessity to integrate into inter- and supranational structures than the country at the center of the two world wars and subsequently divided during the Cold War.

Type
Article
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Central European History Society of the American Historical Association

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1 Haupt, Heinz-Gerhard and Kocka, Jürgen, ed., Geschichte und Vergleich. Ansätze und Ergebnisse international vergleichender Geschichtsschreibung (Frankfurt/Main: Campus, 1996)Google Scholar; Werner, Michael and Zimmermann, Bénédicte, “Vergleich, Transfer, Verflechtung. Der Ansatz der Histoire croisée und die Herausforderung des Transnationalen,” Geschichte und Gesellschaft 28, no. 4 (2002): 607–36Google Scholar; Cohen, Deborah and O'Connor, Maura, ed., Comparison and History: Europe in Cross-National Perspective (New York: Routledge, 2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 Maier, Charles S., “Leviathan 2.0. Die Erfindung moderner Staatlichkeit,” in Geschichte der Welt: Weltmärkte und Weltkriege 1870–1945, ed. Iriye, Akira and Osterhammel, Jürgen (Munich: Beck, 2012)Google Scholar.

3 Jost Dülffer, ed., Dimensionen internationaler Geschichte (Munich: Oldenbourg, 2012); Peter M. Haas, “Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination,” International Organization 46, no. 1 (1992): 1–35. On international history, see Patricia Clavin and Glenda Sluga, ed., Internationalisms: A Twentieth-Century History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017). For bibliographies of the extensive literature on international organizations, see the United Nations History Project (http://www.histecon.magd.cam.ac.uk/unhist/).

4 Steve Cortes, Twitter, November 16, 2020, 5:58 a.m., (https://twitter.com/CortesSteve/status/1328336605338329089?s=20). At time of access, the tweet was liked over 1,000 times and retweeted 429 times.

5 Richard Grenell, “Angela Merkel weist Kritik an Verteidigungsausgaben zurück,” ZEIT Online, March 19, 2019 (https://www.zeit.de/politik/2019-03/richard-grenell-wolfgang-kubicki-us-botschafter-diplomatie); Jörg Lau und Michael Thumann, “In einer Welt voller ‘frenemies,’” ZEIT Online, January 22, 2020 (https://www.zeit.de/2020/05/aussenpolitik-libyen-konferenz-iran-konflikt-gegner-verbuendete/komplettansicht).

6 Ursula von der Leyen, “Shaping Europe's Digital Future,” Modern Diplomacy, February 21, 2020 (https://moderndiplomacy.eu/2020/02/21/shaping-europes-digital-future/).

7 Hans Kundnani, “Europe's Sovereignty Conundrum,” Berlin Policy Journal, May 13, 2020 (https://berlinpolicyjournal.com/europes-sovereignty-conundrum/).

8 Niall Ferguson, ed., The Shock of the Global: The 1970s in Perspective (Cambridge MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2010); Rüdiger Graf, Oil and Sovereignty: Petro-Knowledge and Energy Policy in the United States and Western Europe in the 1970s (New York: Berghahn Books, 2018).

9 Eric Posner, “Liberal Internationalism and the Populist Backlash,” Chicago Public Law and Legal Theory Working Papers, 606 (2017): 3.

10 Joseph A. Camilleri and Jim Falk, The End of Sovereignty? The Politics of a Shrinking and Fragmenting World (Aldershot: E. Elgar, 1992); David J. Eaton, “Introduction: The End of Sovereignty,” in The End of Sovereignty? A Transatlantic Perspective, ed. David J. Eaton (Hamburg: Lit, 2006); Trudy Jacobsen, C. J. G. Sampford, and Ramesh C. Thakur, ed., Re-Envisioning Sovereignty: The End of Westphalia? (Aldershot, England, and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2008).

11 Peter J. Spiro, “The New Sovereigntists: American Exceptionalism and Its False Prophets,” Foreign Affairs 79, no. 6 (2000): 9–15; Jeremy A. Rabkin, The Case for Sovereignty: Why the World Should Welcome American Independence (Washington, DC: AEI Press, 2004).

12 Posner, “Liberal Internationalism and the Populist Backlash,” 5.

13 “To start with, what is the nature of the authority invoked in the name of sovereignty? Is it legal or political in nature? No agreement is forthcoming on this crucial point.” Hent Kalmo and Quentin Skinner, “Introduction: A Concept in Fragments,” in Sovereignty in Fragments: The Past, Present and Future of a Contested Concept, ed. Hent Kalmo and Quentin Skinner (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 3.

14 “Souverän ist, wer über den Ausnahmezustand entscheidet.” Carl Schmitt, Politische Theologie: Vier Kapitel zur Lehre von der Souveränität (Munich: Duncker & Humblot, 1922), 13.

15 Lassa Francis Oppenheim, International Law: A Treatise, vol. 1, Peace (New York and Bombay: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1905).

16 Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition (Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1977); John A. Agnew, Globalization and Sovereignty (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2009).

17 Martti Koskenniemi, “Conclusion: Vocabularies of Sovereignty—Powers of a Paradox,” in Kalmo and Skinner, Sovereignty in Fragments, 222.

18 Melea Lewis, Charles Sampford, and Ramesh C. Thakur, “Introduction,” in Jacobsen, Sampford, and Thakur, Re-Envisioning Sovereignty.

19 Agnew, Globalization and Sovereignty.

20 Manuel Fröhlich, “Lesarten der Souveränität,” Neue Politische Literatur 50, no. 4 (2005): 19–42; Joseph A. Camilleri, “Sovereignty Discourse and Practice: Past and Future,” in Re-Envisioning Sovereignty: The End of Westphalia?, ed. Trudy Jacobsen, C. J. G. Sampford, and Ramesh C. Thakur (Aldershot, England, and Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2008); Manu Goswami, “Crisis Economics: Keynes and the End of Empire,” Constellations 25, no. 1 (2018): 18–34.

21 Kalmo and Skinner, “Introduction,” 5.

22 Kalmo and Skinner, “Introduction,” 7.

23 David A. Lake, “The New Sovereignty in International Relations,” International Studies Review 5 (2003): 307.

24 Wolfgang Streeck, Gekaufte Zeit. Die vertagte Krise des demokratischen Kapitalismus (Berlin: Suhrkamp, 2013); Dietmar Süß, “Idee und Praxis der Privatisierung. Eine Einführung,” in Privatisierung: Idee und Praxis seit den 1970er Jahren, ed. Norbert Frei and Dietmar Süß (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2012), 11–33; Rüdiger Graf, ed., Ökonomisierung: Debatten und Praktiken in der Zeitgeschichte (Göttingen: Wallstein, 2019).

25 Philipp Ther, Die neue Ordnung auf dem alten Kontinent. Eine Geschichte des neoliberalen Europa (Berlin: Suhrkamp, 2015).

26 Arjan H. Schakel, Liesbet Hooghie, and Gary Marks, “Multilevel Governance and the State,” in The Oxford Handbook of Transformations of the State, ed. Stephan Leibfried, et al. (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press 2015), 269–86.

27 Alan S. Milward, The European Rescue of the Nation-State, with the assistance of George Brennan, and Federico Romero (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992).

28 Kiran K. Patel, “Europäische Integrationsgeschichte auf dem Weg zur doppelten Neuorientierung. Ein Forschungsbericht,” Archiv für Sozialgeschichte 50 (2010): 595–642; Mark Gilbert, “Narrating the Process: Questioning the Progressive Story of European Integration,” Journal of Common Market Studies 46, no. 3 (2008): 641–62.

29 Spiro, “The New Sovereigntists”; Rabkin, The Case for Sovereignty.

30 Robert O. Keohane, “Ironies of Sovereignty: The European Union and the United States,” Journal of Common Market Studies 40, no. 4 (2002): 743.

31 Dieter Grimm, Souveränität: Herkunft und Zukunft eines Schlüsselbegriffs (Berlin: Berlin University Press, 2009), 10; Wolfgang Schuller, “Souveränitätsbeschränkungen neuen Typs,” in Souverenitätsprobleme der Neuzeit. Freundesgabe für Helmut Quaritsch anlässlich seines 80. Geburtstages, ed. Hans-Christof Kraus (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2010), 29–42.

32 Camilleri, “Sovereignty Discourse and Practice,” 33–50; Mark Bevir, A Theory of Governance (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013).

33 Andrew Hurrell, On Global Order: Power, Values, and the Constitution of International Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 55.

34 W. B. Gallie, “Essentially Contested Concepts,” Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society 56 (1955–1956): 167–98.

35 Michael Stolleis, “Die Idee des souveränen Staates,” in Entstehen und Wandel verfassungsrechtlichen Denkens (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1995), 64.

36 Quentin Skinner, “The Sovereign State: A Genealogy,” in Kalmo and Skinner, Sovereignty in Fragments; Michael Stolleis, “Souveränität um 1814,” in Konstitutionalismus und Verfassungskonflikt. Symposion für Dieter Willoweit, ed. Ulrike Müßig (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2006), 101–15; Grimm, Souveränität.

37 Lauren Benton, A Search for Sovereignty: Law and Geography in European Empires, 1400-1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 9. See also Andrew Fitzmaurice, Sovereignty, Property and Empire, 1500–2000 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014).

38 Jeremy Adelman, “An Age of Imperial Revolutions,” American Historical Review 113, no. 2 (2008): 319–40.

39 Barry Buzan, “Universal Sovereignty,” in The Globalization of International Society, ed. Tim Dunne and Christian Reus-Smit (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2017), 227–47; Antony Anghie, Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

40 Prasenjit Duara, “Transnationalism and the Predicament of Sovereignty: China, 1900–1945,” American Historical Review 102, no. 4 (1997): 1030–51; Anne Reinhardt, Navigating Semi-Colonialism: Shipping, Sovereignty, and Nation-Building in China, 1860–1937 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2018).

41 Aimee Genell, “Ottoman Autonomous Provinces and the Problem of ‘Semi-Sovereignty’ in International Law,” Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies 18, no. 6 (2016): 533–49.

42 Oppenheim, International Law, vol. 1, 101.

43 Erez Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007); Marcus M. Payk and Roberta Pergher, ed., Beyond Versailles: Sovereignty, Legitimacy, and the Formation of New Polities After the Great War (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2019).

44 Buzan, “Universal Sovereignty”; James J. Sheehan, “The Problem of Sovereignty in European History,” American Historical Review 111, no. 1 (2006): 1–15.

45 Julie MacArthur, “Decolonizing Sovereignty: States of Exception along the Kenya-Somali Frontier,” American Historical Review 124, no. 1 (2019): 108–43; Lydia Walker, “Decolonization in the 1960s: On Legitimate and Illegitimate Nationalist Claims-Making,” Past & Present 242, no. 1 (2019): 227–64.

46 Adom Getachew, Worldmaking after Empire: The Rise and Fall of Self-Determination (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019).

47 Christopher R. W. Dietrich, Oil Revolution: Anticolonial Elites, Sovereign Rights, and the Economic Culture of Decolonization (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017).

48 James Brennan, “The Cold War Battle over Global News in East Africa: Decolonization, the Free Flow of Information, and the Media Business, 1960–1980,” Journal of Global History 10, no. 2 (2015): 333–56; Vanessa Freije, “The ‘Emancipation of Media’: Latin American Advocacy for a New International Information Order in the 1970s,” Journal of Global History 14, no. 2 (2019): 301–20.

49 “To start with, what is the nature of the authority invoked in the name of sovereignty? Is it legal or political in nature? No agreement is forthcoming on this crucial point.” Kalmo and Skinner, “Introduction,” 3.

50 Carl Schmitt, Land and Sea, trans. Simone Draghici (Washington, DC: Plutarch Press, 1997), 59. In original, Carl Schmitt, Land und Meer: Eine weltgeschichtliche Betrachtung (Köln-Lövenich: Hohenheim, 1981 [1942]), 106.

51 Heidi J. S. Tworek, News from Germany: The Competition to Control World Communications, 1900–1945 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2019).

52 Charles S. Maier, “Consigning the Twentieth Century to History: Alternative Narratives for the Modern Era,” American Historical Review 105, no. 3 (2000): 808.

53 On the United States, see Rita Zajácz, Reluctant Power: Networks, Corporations, and the Struggle for Global Governance in the Early 20th Century (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2019).

54 Emmanuel Macron, “Dear Europe, Brexit Is a Lesson for All of Us: It's Time for Renewal,” The Guardian, March 4, 2019 (https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/mar/04/europe-brexit-uk).

55 “Russian Parliament Passes ‘Sovereign Internet’ Bill on First Reading,” UA Wire, February 13, 2019, https://www.uawire.org/russian-parliament-passes-sovereign-internet-bill-on-first-reading.

56 Kalmo and Skinner, “Introduction,” 2.

57 Hedley Bull, The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics, 4th ed. (London: Macmillan, 2012), 8. Conceptual distinctions, of course, may be more nuanced as Stephen Krasner's among “international legal sovereignty,” “Westphalian sovereignty,” “domestic sovereignty,” and “interdependence sovereignty.” Stephen D. Krasner, Sovereignty: Organized Hypocdrisy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), 3.

58 Dieter Grimm, “War das Deutsche Kaiserreich ein souveräner Staat,” in Das Deutsche Kaiserreich in der Kontroverse, ed. Sven Müller and Cornelius Torp (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2009), 86–101.

59 Anghie, Imperialism, Sovereignty and the Making of International Law.

60 Steven Press, Rogue Empires: Contracts and Conmen in Europe's Scramble for Africa (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017).

61 Christian Koller, Von Wilden aller Rassen niedergemetzelt. Die Diskussion um die Verwendung von Kolonialtruppen in Europa zwischen Rassismus, Kolonial- und Militärpolitik (1914–1930) (Stuttgart: Steiner 2001).

62 Ernst Forsthoff, Der totale Staat (Hamburg: Hanseatische Verl.-Anst, 1933).

63 Ludolf Herbst, Der Totale Krieg und die Ordnung der Wirtschaft. Die Kriegswirtschaft im Spannungsfeld von Politik, Ideologie und Propaganda 1939–1945 (Stuttgart: Dt. Verl.-Anst, 1982).

64 Dan Plesch, America, Hitler and the UN: How the Allies Won World War II and Forged a Peace (London: I. B. Tauris & Co Ltd, 2011).

65 Klaus Hildebrand, Integration und Souveränität. Die Außenpolitik der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1949–1982 (Bonn: Bouvier, 1991); Helga Haftendorn, Deutsche Außenpolitik zwischen Selbstbeschränkung und Selbstbehauptung. 1945–2000 (Stuttgart: Dt. Verl.-Anst. 2001).

66 Willy Brandt, “Address to the United Nations General Assembly: 2128th Plenary Meeting, 26 September 1973,” in Twenty-Eighth Session. Plenary Meetings: Verbatim Records of Meetings 18 September–18 December 1973 and 16 September 1974, ed. United Nations General Assembly (New York, 1983).

67 Hettling, Manfred, “Die persönliche Selbständigkeit. Der archimedische Punkt bürgerlicher Lebensführung,” in Der bürgerliche Wertehimmel. Innenansichten des 19. Jahrhunderts, ed. Hettling, Manfred and Hoffmann, Stefan-Ludwig (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2000), 2356Google Scholar.

68 Olsen, Niklas, The Sovereign Consumer: A New Intellectual History of Neoliberalism (Basingstoke, England: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018)Google Scholar.