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Regulating for Australia's Youngest Workers

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 May 2013

Natalie van der Waarden
Natalie van der Waarden*
Affiliation:
Murdoch University, Perth, Australia
*
addresses for correspondence: Ms Natalie van der Waarden, Murdoch University, 90 South Street, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia. Email: n.vanderwaarden@murdoch.edu.au
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Abstract

Child labour is a phrase associated with exploitation, poverty, insufficient education and various forms of physical abuse. These connotations do not match Australian perceptions about the employment of children and are not correlated with mainstream dialogue on teenagers in part time and casual employment. Child employment is an accepted part of Australian society, with older children making up a significant portion of the workforce. Minimum standards are increasingly regarded a critical safeguard for young Australians at work, evidenced by recent state level statutory amendment and enactment of dedicated legislation. This article makes two submissions; first, it suggests the regulation of young people's working conditions is inappropriately neglected at national level in Australia, and secondly, it proposes national standards should be set and equated with those in other developed economies, meeting international standards. The 1994 European Community Directive on the Protection of Young Workers is referred to as a suitable benchmark.

Keywords

child labourinternational standardsInternational Labour OrganisationEuropean Unionyoung workersminimum age
Type
Articles
Information
Children Australia , Volume 38 , Issue 2 , June 2013 , pp. 76 - 86
Copyright
Copyright © The Authors 2013 

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References

References

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European Community Directive on the Protection of Young People at Work (94/33/EC)Google Scholar
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Night Work of Children and Young Persons (Agriculture) Recommendation 1921 (ILO)Google Scholar
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Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention 1999 (ILO)Google Scholar
Anker, R. (2000). The economics of child labour, a framework for measurement. International Labour Review 139 (3), 257–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bequele, A., & Boyden, J. (1988). Working children: Current trends and policy responses. International Labour Review, 127 (2), 153–172.Google Scholar
Bond, A. (1995). The young persons directive. Industrial Law Journal 24 (4), 377–378.Google Scholar
Bowden, B., & Penrose, B. (2006). The origins of child labour in Australia, 1880-1907. Journal of Occupational Health and Safety Australia and New Zealand 22 (2), 127–135.Google Scholar
Carskadon, M. A. (2004). Factors influencing sleep patterns of adolescents. Carskadon, M. A., (ed.). Adolescent Sleep Patterns: Biological, Social, and Psychological Influences Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom pp. 4–26.Google Scholar
Creighton, B. (1996–97). Combating child labour: The role of international labour standards. Comparative Labour Law Journal 18, 362–396.Google Scholar
Churchill, R. R., & Khaliq, U. (2004). The collective complaints system of the European Social Charter, an effective mechanism for ensuring compliance with economic and social rights? European Journal of International Law, 15 (3), 417–456.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cullen, H. (2007). The Role of International Law in the Elimination of Child Labor, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Netherlands.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diallo, Y., Hagemann, F., Etienne, A., Gurbuzer, Y., & Mehran, F. (2010). Global Child Labour Developments: Measuring Trends from 2004 to 2008 International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour, International Labour Office, Switzerland.Google Scholar
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Hepple, B. (1988). Committee of independent experts of the European Social Charter, conclusions X-1. Industrial Law Journal 17 (1), 124–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
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Humphries, J. (2010). Childhood and Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution, Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mourell, M., & Allan, C. (2005). The statutory regulation of child labour in Queensland, in Reworking Work: Proceedings of the 19th Conference of the Association of Industrial Relations Academics of Australia and New Zealand, edited by Baird, M., Cooper, R. & Westcott, M., Sydney, AIRAANZ, pp. 395–404.Google Scholar
Ranjan, R., & Lancaster, G. (2005). The impact of children's work on schooling: Multi-country evidence. International Labour Review 144 (2), 189–210, esp. 207.Google Scholar
Riley, J. (2007). Employing minors in New South Wales: The Industrial Relations (Child Employment) Act 2006 (NSW). Australian Journal of Labour Law 20 (3), 295.Google Scholar
Smolin, D. (2000). Strategic choices in the international campaign against child labor. Human Rights Quarterly 22 (4), 942–987.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steinberg, L. (2009). Should the science of adolescent brain development inform public policy? American Psychology 64, 739–750.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
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Windau, J., Sygnatur, E., & Toscano, G. (1999). Profile of work injuries incurred by young workers. Monthly Labor Review, 122 (6), 3–13.Google Scholar
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Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2003). Australia's Combined Second and Third Reports under the Convention on the Rights of the Child, pg 478–482. Retrieved from http://www.dfat.gov.au/hr/downloads/australia_2nd_3rd_reports_convention_rights_child.pdfGoogle Scholar
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Emerson, P., & Portela Souza, A. (2007). ‘Is Child Labor Harmful? The Impact of Working Earlier in Life on Adult Earnings’ Institute for the Study of Labor Discussion Paper 3027. Retrieved from http://www.ssrn.com/abstract=1015498Google Scholar
European Union (2004). Report from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of Regions on the application of Directive 94/33/EC on the protection of young people at work, see esp. pgh 4.3, Germany, 4.7 Ireland, and 4.11 Austria. Retrieved from http://www.eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2004:0105:FIN:EN:HTMLGoogle Scholar
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Fair Work Australia (2011b). Key Changes. Retrieved from http://www.fwa.gov.au/index.cfm?pagename=transchangesGoogle Scholar
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Guarcello, L. (2004). ‘The Impact of Working Time on Children's Health’ ILO Publication. Retrieved from http://www.ideas.repec.org/s/ucw/worpap.htmlGoogle Scholar
Hartlapp, M., The Implementation of EU Social Policy Directives in Belgium: Re-establishing equilibrium in domestic politics? International Seminar ‘Europeanization of social policies’ Centre de recherches politiques de Sciences Po (CEVIPOF), SPF (Federal Public Service Social Security), BRUSSELS, Feb 8–9, 2007. Retrieved from http://www.ose.be/seminar080207/files/080207ES_Hartlapp.pdfGoogle Scholar
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International Labour Organization (2012). 12 to 12 Partnership Initiative. Retrieved from http://www.ilo.org/ipec/Campaignandadvocacy/12to12_Partnership/lang–en/index.htmGoogle Scholar
McDonalds (2011). Working Requirements, what you should know. Retrieved from http://www.mcdonalds.com.au/careers/working-here/requirementsGoogle Scholar
New South Wales Commission for Children and Young People (2009). Ask the Children, I Want to Work. Retrieved from http://www.kids.nsw.gov.au/kids/resources/publications.cfm?itemID=15E1569BEA7D9677907E9375B1A996FAGoogle Scholar
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Sandy, A. (2010). Karreman quarry nine year old loses appeal to continue work The Courier-Mail 2 February. Retrieved from http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/karreman-quarry-nine-year-old-loses-appeal-to-continue-work/story-e6freoof-1225825698160Google Scholar
Stewart, A. (2008). Making the Working World Work Better for Kids, a Report for the NSW Commission of Children and Young People. Retrieved from http://www.kids.nsw.gov.au/kids/resources/publications.cfmGoogle Scholar
Child Employment Principles Case 2007 [2007] NSWIR-Comm 110 (22 May 2007)Google Scholar
Care and Protection of Children Act (NT)Google Scholar
Child Employment Act 2003 (Vic)Google Scholar
Child Employment Act 2006 (Qld)Google Scholar
Child Employment Bill (SA) 2010Google Scholar
Children and Community Services Act 2004 (WA)Google Scholar
Children and Young People Act 2008 (ACT)Google Scholar
Children and Young Persons (Care and Protection) Act 1998 (NSW)Google Scholar
Commonwealth Commissioner for Children and Young People Bill 2010 (Cth)Google Scholar
Fair Work Act 2009 (Cth)Google Scholar
Fair Work Regulations 2009 (Cth)Google Scholar
Model Work Health and Safety Act 2010Google Scholar
Occupational Licensing National Law Act 2010 (Cth)Google Scholar
Charter of Fundamental Rights (EU)Google Scholar
Conditions of Employment of Young Persons (Underground Work) 1965 (ILO)Google Scholar
Consolidated Working Environment Act 2005 (Dk)Google Scholar
Consolidated Working Conditions Act (Dk)Google Scholar
Convention on the Rights of the Child (United Nations)Google Scholar
European Community Directive on the Protection of Young People at Work (94/33/EC)Google Scholar
Labour Act 1971(Be)Google Scholar
Minimum Age Convention 1973 (ILO)Google Scholar
Minimum Age (Industry) Convention 1919 (ILO)Google Scholar
Night Work of Children and Young Persons (Agriculture) Recommendation 1921 (ILO)Google Scholar
Social Charter of 1961 (Council of Europe)Google Scholar
Working Conditions Decree (Nl)Google Scholar
Work Environment Act (Sw)Google Scholar
Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention 1999 (ILO)Google Scholar
Anker, R. (2000). The economics of child labour, a framework for measurement. International Labour Review 139 (3), 257–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bequele, A., & Boyden, J. (1988). Working children: Current trends and policy responses. International Labour Review, 127 (2), 153–172.Google Scholar
Bond, A. (1995). The young persons directive. Industrial Law Journal 24 (4), 377–378.Google Scholar
Bowden, B., & Penrose, B. (2006). The origins of child labour in Australia, 1880-1907. Journal of Occupational Health and Safety Australia and New Zealand 22 (2), 127–135.Google Scholar
Carskadon, M. A. (2004). Factors influencing sleep patterns of adolescents. Carskadon, M. A., (ed.). Adolescent Sleep Patterns: Biological, Social, and Psychological Influences Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom pp. 4–26.Google Scholar
Creighton, B. (1996–97). Combating child labour: The role of international labour standards. Comparative Labour Law Journal 18, 362–396.Google Scholar
Churchill, R. R., & Khaliq, U. (2004). The collective complaints system of the European Social Charter, an effective mechanism for ensuring compliance with economic and social rights? European Journal of International Law, 15 (3), 417–456.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cullen, H. (2007). The Role of International Law in the Elimination of Child Labor, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Netherlands.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diallo, Y., Hagemann, F., Etienne, A., Gurbuzer, Y., & Mehran, F. (2010). Global Child Labour Developments: Measuring Trends from 2004 to 2008 International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour, International Labour Office, Switzerland.Google Scholar
Harris, D. J. (1964). The European Social Charter. International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 13, 1076–1087.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harslof, I. (2007). Changing youth labour markets, welfare institutions and young people's control over working time. Time Society, 16, 207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hepple, B. (1988). Committee of independent experts of the European Social Charter, conclusions X-1. Industrial Law Journal 17 (1), 124–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humbert, F. (2009). The Challenge of Child Labour in International Law, Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphries, J. (2010). Childhood and Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution, Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mourell, M., & Allan, C. (2005). The statutory regulation of child labour in Queensland, in Reworking Work: Proceedings of the 19th Conference of the Association of Industrial Relations Academics of Australia and New Zealand, edited by Baird, M., Cooper, R. & Westcott, M., Sydney, AIRAANZ, pp. 395–404.Google Scholar
Ranjan, R., & Lancaster, G. (2005). The impact of children's work on schooling: Multi-country evidence. International Labour Review 144 (2), 189–210, esp. 207.Google Scholar
Riley, J. (2007). Employing minors in New South Wales: The Industrial Relations (Child Employment) Act 2006 (NSW). Australian Journal of Labour Law 20 (3), 295.Google Scholar
Smolin, D. (2000). Strategic choices in the international campaign against child labor. Human Rights Quarterly 22 (4), 942–987.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steinberg, L. (2009). Should the science of adolescent brain development inform public policy? American Psychology 64, 739–750.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stewart, A., & van der Waarden, N. (2011). Regulating youth work: Lessons from Australia and the United Kingdom. in Price, R., et al., Young People and Work, Ashgate, pp. 185–201.Google Scholar
Windau, J., Sygnatur, E., & Toscano, G. (1999). Profile of work injuries incurred by young workers. Monthly Labor Review, 122 (6), 3–13.Google Scholar
Australian Bureau of Statistics (2007). Child Employment Australia June 2006 Cat. No. 6211 AGPS Canberra. Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATSGoogle Scholar
Australian Bureau of Statistics (2011). Work Related Injuries, Australia 2009-10 Cat No. 6324 AGPS Canberra. Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/6324.0Google Scholar
Commission for Children and Young People and Child Guardian (2005). Queensland Review of Child Labour, Summary of Findings April 2005 Queensland Government, Brisbane. Retrieved from http://www.ccypcg.qld.gov.au/pdf/publications/reports/child_labour_report_0405.pdfGoogle Scholar
Committee on the Rights of the Child (1997). Concluding Observations: Australia, esp. pg 11 and 29. Retrieved from http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/(Symbol)/CRC.C.15.Add.79.En?OpenDocumentGoogle Scholar
Committee on the Rights of the Child (2003). General Comment, General Measures of Implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, Annex 1. Retrieved from http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/crc/comments.htmGoogle Scholar
Committee on the Rights of the Child (2005). Written Replies from the Government of Australia, p 57 and 98. Retrieved from http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/crc/docs/AdvanceVersions/CRC.C.RESP.90.pdfGoogle Scholar
Council of Europe (2011). Member States of the Council of Europe and the European Social Charter. Retrieved from http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/socialcharter/Presentation/Overview_en.aspGoogle Scholar
Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (2011). National Economic Stimulus Plan, Building the Education Revolution Overview Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved from http://www.deewr.gov.au/Schooling/BuildingTheEducationRevolution/Pages/BEROverview.aspxGoogle Scholar
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2003). Australia's Combined Second and Third Reports under the Convention on the Rights of the Child, pg 478–482. Retrieved from http://www.dfat.gov.au/hr/downloads/australia_2nd_3rd_reports_convention_rights_child.pdfGoogle Scholar
De Vos, M. & De Wolf, B. (2010). The Treaty of Lisbon and Social Policy: A Tempest in a Teapot. European Employment Law Cases, March. Retrieved from http://www.eelc-online.comGoogle Scholar
Emerson, P., & Portela Souza, A. (2007). ‘Is Child Labor Harmful? The Impact of Working Earlier in Life on Adult Earnings’ Institute for the Study of Labor Discussion Paper 3027. Retrieved from http://www.ssrn.com/abstract=1015498Google Scholar
European Union (2004). Report from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of Regions on the application of Directive 94/33/EC on the protection of young people at work, see esp. pgh 4.3, Germany, 4.7 Ireland, and 4.11 Austria. Retrieved from http://www.eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2004:0105:FIN:EN:HTMLGoogle Scholar
European Union (2011). Employment and Social Affairs. Retrieved from http://europa.eu/pol/socio/index_en.htmGoogle Scholar
Fair Work Australia (2011a). Annual Wage Review 2010-11. Retrieved from http://www.fwa.gov.au/sites/wagereview2011/downloads/PR062011.pdfGoogle Scholar
Fair Work Australia (2011b). Key Changes. Retrieved from http://www.fwa.gov.au/index.cfm?pagename=transchangesGoogle Scholar
Foundation for Young Australians (2010). How Young People are Faring ‘09, Foundation for Young Australians, Melbourne. Retrieved from http://www.fya.org.au/category/research/Google Scholar
Guarcello, L. (2004). ‘The Impact of Working Time on Children's Health’ ILO Publication. Retrieved from http://www.ideas.repec.org/s/ucw/worpap.htmlGoogle Scholar
Hartlapp, M., The Implementation of EU Social Policy Directives in Belgium: Re-establishing equilibrium in domestic politics? International Seminar ‘Europeanization of social policies’ Centre de recherches politiques de Sciences Po (CEVIPOF), SPF (Federal Public Service Social Security), BRUSSELS, Feb 8–9, 2007. Retrieved from http://www.ose.be/seminar080207/files/080207ES_Hartlapp.pdfGoogle Scholar
International Labour Organization (2011a). Child Labour. Retrieved from http://www.ilo.org/ipec/facts/lang–en/index.htmGoogle Scholar
International Labour Organization (2011b). Country Baselines under the ILO Declaration Annual Review (2000-2011): The Effective Abolition of Child Labour (CL). Retrieved from http://www.ilo.org/declaration/follow-up/annualreview/countrybaselines/lang–en/docName–WCMS_091263/index.htmGoogle Scholar
International Labour Organization (2011c). Effective Abolition of Child Labour (CL). Retrieved from http://www.ilo.org/declaration/principles/abolitionofchildlabour/lang–en/index.htmGoogle Scholar
International Labour Organization (2012). 12 to 12 Partnership Initiative. Retrieved from http://www.ilo.org/ipec/Campaignandadvocacy/12to12_Partnership/lang–en/index.htmGoogle Scholar
McDonalds (2011). Working Requirements, what you should know. Retrieved from http://www.mcdonalds.com.au/careers/working-here/requirementsGoogle Scholar
New South Wales Commission for Children and Young People (2009). Ask the Children, I Want to Work. Retrieved from http://www.kids.nsw.gov.au/kids/resources/publications.cfm?itemID=15E1569BEA7D9677907E9375B1A996FAGoogle Scholar
New South Wales Commission for Children and Young People (2005). Children at Work. Retrieved from http://www.kids.nsw.gov.au/uploads/documents/ChildrenatworkreportFinal.pdfGoogle Scholar
Parliament of Australia (2011). Explanatory Memorandum, Commonwealth Commissioner for Children and Young People Bill 2010. Retrieved from http://www.parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22legislation%2Fems%2Fs771_ems_660f452a-de9e-41d2-9634-dde4eff482c8%22;rec=0Google Scholar
Right to Education Project, Minimum Age of Employment. Retrieved from http://www.right-to-education.org/node/55Google Scholar
Safe Work Australia (2011a). Model Work Health and Safety Regulations and model Codes of Practice. Retrieved from http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/Legislation/Pages/ModelWHSLegislation.aspxGoogle Scholar
Safe Work Australia (2011b). Draft model Work Health and Safety Codes of Practise – Public Comment. Retrieved from http://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/Legislation/PublicComment/Pages/Model-WHS-CoP-Public-Comment.aspxGoogle Scholar
Sandy, A. (2010). Karreman quarry nine year old loses appeal to continue work The Courier-Mail 2 February. Retrieved from http://www.couriermail.com.au/news/queensland/karreman-quarry-nine-year-old-loses-appeal-to-continue-work/story-e6freoof-1225825698160Google Scholar
Stewart, A. (2008). Making the Working World Work Better for Kids, a Report for the NSW Commission of Children and Young People. Retrieved from http://www.kids.nsw.gov.au/kids/resources/publications.cfmGoogle Scholar