Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-4rdpn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-13T00:08:23.977Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The First Catholic Diocese in Asia and the Spread of Catholicism: Juan de Albuquerque, Bishop of Goa, 1538–1553

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 March 2022

José Pedro Paiva
José Pedro Paiva*
Affiliation:
Center for the History of Society and Culture, University of Coimbra, Portugal
*
Email: lejpaiva@fl.uc.pt
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article offers an interpretation of the actions of the Franciscan Juan de Albuquerque as bishop of the first Catholic diocese in Asia. The analysis considers the local impacts of the episcopal government and the connectivities of its action, particularly through comparison with similar processes adopted in Spanish America. Based on a wide range of historical sources and cross-referencing them, it investigates how Albuquerque governed in three stages: first, describing the enormous challenges he faced; second, outlining his profile; and third, proposing a reconstruction of his government and the implications it had on the dissemination of Catholicism. The hypothesis raised at the outset is that, in Asia, the Bishop of Goa built a structure that was inspired by the matrix and dynamics of the Portuguese dioceses, which were then adapted to the specificities of the local situation. Accordingly, it is necessary to review the thesis of Charles Boxer, for whom the dynamics of evangelization in the spaces overseen by the Iberian empires from the 16th century onwards were generated essentially by the missionaries from the regular clergy and by the monarchies. By shifting the focus to the actions of a single bishop, the article demonstrates that Albuquerque, the diocesan church he created from scratch, and the secular clergy should not be underestimated.

Keywords

Foundation of Goa DioceseJuan the AlbuquerqueEarly Modern CatholicismConnected History
Type
Articles
Information
Church History , Volume 90 , Issue 4 , December 2021 , pp. 776 - 798
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of American Society of Church History

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This article was supported by the project “ReligionAJE: Religion, Ecclesiastical Administration and Justice in the Portuguese Seaborne Empire (1514–1750),” PTDC/HAR-HIS/28719/2017, which is sponsored by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, FCT, H2020, and FEDER through COMPETE.

References

1 Bireley, Robert, The Refashioning of Catholicism 1450–1700 (London: MacMillan, 1999), 147CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

2 Ditchfield, Simon, “Catholic Reformation and Renewal,” in The Oxford Illustrated History of the Reformation, ed. Marshall, Peter (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015), 152Google Scholar.

3 Boxer, C. R., The Church Militant and Iberian Expansion (1440–1770) (Baltimore, Md.: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978)Google Scholar.

4 Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, “Written on Water: Designs and Dynamics in the Portuguese Estado da Índia,” in Empires. Perspectives from Archeology and History, ed. Alcock, Susan E., D'Altroy, Terence N., Morrison, Kathleen D., and Sinopoli, Carla M. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 47Google Scholar; and Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, Courtly Encounters: Translating Courtliness and Violence in Early Modern Eurasia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 110CrossRefGoogle Scholar. The same perspective appears in the introduction of Forrestal, Alison and Smith, Sean, “Re-thinking Missionary Catholicism for the Early Modern Era,” in The Frontiers of Mission: Perspectives on Early Modern Missionary Catholicism, ed. Forrestal, Alison and Smith, Sean (Leiden: Brill, 2016), 5CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

5 Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, Empires between Islam and Christianity, 1500–1800 (Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 2019), 23Google Scholar.

6 Documentação Ultramarina Portuguesa (Lisbon: Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos, 1962), 2:529–531.

7 Joseph Wicki, ed. Documenta Indica (Lisbon: Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu, 1948), 1:728. All translations by Karen Bennett.

8 Mateus Dias, a priest, to King John III, Cochin, 22 January 1550, in Documentação para a História das Missões do Padroado Português do Oriente: Índia, ed. António da Silva Rego (Lisbon: Agência Geral das Colónias 1950), 4:480; and Alberts, Tara, Conflict and Conversion: Catholicism in Southeast Asia, 1500–1700 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 20CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 The episode was noted and commented on by Ananya Chakravarti, The Empire of Apostles: Religion, Accomodatio, and the Imagination of Empire in Early Modern Brazil and India (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), 99.

10 Miguel Vaz, vicar-general of Goa, in a letter to the king dated from 1545, mentioned that Portuguese traders went to the Coromandel Coast to buy young slaves that were then sold on to Muslims, see Wicki, ed., Documenta, 1:74–75. In Mexico, the enslavement of local populations was also practiced and criticized by some bishops as an obstacle to the diffusion of Christianity, see Ryan Dominic Crew, “Bautizando el colonialismo: Las politicas de conversión em México después de la conquista,” Historia Mexicana 58, no. 3 (2019): 983.

11 Topic discussed by Strathern, Alan, Kingship and Conversion in Sixteenth-century Sri Lanka: Portuguese Imperialism in a Buddhist land (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 89Google Scholar.

12 Strathern, Kingship, 89.

13 In some cases, the former deities were moved a few miles away to escape Portuguese surveillance and “this proximity facilitated cultural contacts between the new temples and the Goan Catholic villages.” Paul Axelrod and Michelle Fuerch, “Flight of Deities: Hindu Resistance in Portuguese Goa,” Modern Asian Studies 30 (1996): 391.

14 Strathern, Kingship, 104.

15 On the royal patronage, see Fernanda Olival, The Military Orders and the Portuguese Expansion (15th–17th centuries) (Petersborough: Baywolf, 2018).

16 Some Cochin residents to King John III, 3 January 1541, in Documentação para a História das Missões do Padroado Português do Oriente: Índia, ed. António da Silva Rego (Lisbon: Agência Geral das Colónias 1949), 2:291–292.

17 Juan de Albuquerque to King John III, Goa, 5 November 1548, in Rego, Documentação, 4:109.

18 Rego, Documentação, 2:364.

19 The bishop received wine and olive oil from Portugal, as in 1542, Arquivo Nacional Torre do Tombo, Lisbon (hereafter ANTT), Corpo Cronológico, II parte, m. 237, doc. 134.

20 Alan Strathern, “Os Piedosos and the Mission in India and Sri Lanka,” in D. João III e o império: Actas do Congresso Internacional comemorativo do seu nascimento (Lisbon: Centro de História de Além-Mar, 2004), 857–858.

21 Manoel de Monforte, Chronica da Provincia da Piedade primeira capucha de toda a Ordem e Regular Observancia de Nosso Serafico Padre S. Francisco (Lisbon: Miguel Manescal da Costa, 1751), 398–399.

22 Juan de Albuquerque to Viceroy João de Castro, Goa, 10 January 1547, in Rego, Documentação, 4:437–441.

23 Robert Ricard, La conquista espiritual de Mexico: Ensayo sobre el apostolado y los métodos misioneros de las órdenes mendicantes em la Nueva España de 1523–1524 a 1572 (1947; Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Economica, 2014), 66; and Steven E. Turley, Franciscan Spirituality and Mission in New Spain, 1524–1599: Conflict beneath the Sycamore Tree (Luke 19:1–10) (Farnham: Ashgate, 2014), 29–56.

24 Giuseppe Marcocci, Indios, cinesi, falsari: Le storie del mondo nel Rinascimento (Rome: Laterza, 2016), 34.

25 Julia McClure, The Franciscan Invention of the New World (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), 8, 51.

26 Turley, Franciscan Spirituality, 31.

27 Juan de Albuquerque to Álvaro de Castro, son of Viceroy João de Castro, Goa, January 22, 1547, in ANTT, Coleção de São Lourenço, vol. 3, fol. 503r.

28 Juan de Albuquerque to the Jesuit Simão Rodrigues, whom he thanks for the help received by the Jesuit priests, Goa, 28 November 1550, in Rego, Documentação, 4:46.

29 ANTT, Coleção de São Lourenço, vol. 2, fol. 419r-420v.

30 Chakravarti, Empire of Apostles, 28.

31 Turley, Franciscan Spirituality, 33.

32 Juan de Albuquerque to Viceroy João de Castro, Goa, 18 November 1546, in Documentação para a História das Missões do Padroado Português do Oriente: Índia, ed. António da Silva Rego (Lisbon: Agência Geral das Colónias 1950), 3:382–383.

33 Juan de Albuquerque to Viceroy João de Castro, Cochin, 26 November 1547, in Rego, Documentação, 3:523.

34 Vicente de Lagos, a Franciscan, to King John III, Cranganore, 1 January 1549, in Rego, Documentação, 4:208.

35 António Gomes, a Jesuit, to King John III, Goa, 25 October 1549, in Rego, Documentação, 4:345.

36 João Noé, a Franciscan, to King John III, Cochin, 28 January 1552, in Documenta Indica, ed. Joseph Wicki (Lisbon: Monumenta Historica Societatis Iesu, 1950), 2:316.

37 Francisco Xavier Gomes Catão, “Sé catedral de Goa: Alguns documentos do século XVI,” Stvdia 13/14 (1964): 527.

38 Juan de Albuquerque to Álvaro de Castro, son of Viceroy João de Castro, Goa, 6 September 1546, in Rego, Documentação, 3:523.

39 Cosme Anes to King John III, Bassein, 30 November 1547, in Rego, Documentação, 3:534.

40 Obras Completas de D. João de Castro, ed. Armando Cortesão and Luís de Albuquerque (Coimbra: Academia Internacional da Cultura Portuguesa, 1968), 4:319.

41 The best synopsis about the religious dynamics in Goa before 1540 is Ângela Barreto Xavier, A invenção de Goa (Lisbon: ICS, 2008), 89–104.

42 Patrícia Souza de Faria, “Os franciscanos no Malabar: Experiências missionárias e mediações culturais no sul da Índia (século XVI),” SÉMATA: Ciências Sociais e Humanidades 26 (2014): 452–455; and António da Silva Rego, História das missões do padroado português do Oriente: India (1500–1542) (Lisbon: Agência Geral das Colónias, 1949), 157–158.

43 The first Dominican convent dated back from 1548 and the Augustinians arrived later, by 1575. Délio de Mendonça, Conversions and Citizenry: Goa under Portugal, 1510–1610 (New Delhi: Concept Publishing, 2002), 80–81.

44 Charles Martial De Witte, ed., Les lettres papales concernant l´expansion portuguaise au XVIe siècle ([s.l.]: Nouvelle Revue de Science Missionaire, 1986), 124.

45 Achilles Meersman, “The First Latin bishops in the Portuguese Period in India,” Neue Zeitschrift fur Missionswissenschaft - Nouvelle Revue de Science Missionaire 40 (1964): 179–183.

46 Fernando Vaqueiro to the viceroy, Goa, 12 December 1532, in Rego, Documentação, 2:235–237.

47 Paolo Aranha, Il cristianesimo latino in India nel XVI secolo (Milan: Franco Angeli, 2006), 118–120; and Mendonça, Conversions and Citizenry, 106–109.

48 Ines G. Županov, “The Pulpit Trap: Possession and Personhood in Colonial Goa,” Anthropology and Aesthetics 65/66 (2014/2015): 299.

49 Regimento of the governor Diogo Lopes de Sequeira for the Goa captain, Archivo Portuguez-Oriental, ed. Joaquim H. da Cunha Rivara (New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1865), 5.1:21.

50 Bula Aequum reputamus IV, the original in ANTT, Bulas, m. 23, n. 28.

51 Jorge E. Traslosheros, Iglesia, justicia y sociedad en la Nueva España (México: Editorial Porrúa, 2004), 14.

52 Leticia Pérez Puente, “El Obispo: Politico de institucion divina,” in La Iglesia en Nueva España: Problemas e perspetivas de investigación (Mexico City: Universidade Nacional Autonoma de México, 2010), 167.

53 Copy of letter from John III to Albuquerque made in 1691 from a Register Book that existed at the Archbishopric Archive, in Arquivo Histórico Ultramarino, Lisbon (hereafter AHU), Conselho Ultramarino (CU), Índia, caixa 70, doc. 15.

54 Rego, Documentação, 4:137.

55 Gaspar Correia, Lendas da Índia (Lisbon: Academia Real das Sciencias, 1864), 4.1:11.

56 Last will of Tabarija, in Documentação para a História das Missões do Padroado Português no Oriente: Insulíndia, ed. Artur Basílio de Sá (Lisbon: Agência Geral do Ultramar, 1955), 2:22.

57 Correia, Lendas, 4.1:88.

58 Transcription of the original register in Catão, “Sé catedral de Goa,” 511.

59 Rego, Documentação, 2:265–290.

60 The Tombo is mentioned in original registers published by Catão, “Sé catedral de Goa,” 528.

61 The choirmaster of Goa cathedral to King John III, Rome, 31 October 1542, in Rego, Documentação, 2:322–323.

62 Rego, Documentação, 3:322–323.

63 The reference to the salaries can be found in the Tombo da Índia done by Simão Botelho and finished in 1554, published in Rodrigo José de Lima Felner, ed., Subsídios para a História da Índia Portuguesa (Lisbon: Academia Real das Sciencias, 1868), 69.

64 Pedro Fernandes to Viceroy João de Castro, Goa, 14 February 1547, in Rego, Documentação, 3:490; and Cosme Anes to King John III, Goa, 30 December 1549, in Rego, Documentação, 4:471–72. About Pedro Fernandes, see José Pedro Paiva, “Trabalho mais para que não se pervertam os brancos do que para a conversão dos negros”: Pedro Fernandes, bispo de Salvador da Bahia (1551–1556), entre Paris, Lisboa, Goa, Cabo Verde e o Brasil,” Varia Historia 37/73 (2021): 17–52.

65 Draft of the letter the king wrote to the pope appointing Pedro Fernandes, in ANTT, Coleção de São Vicente, livro 6, fol. 65r.

66 He is mentioned without being explicitly named in a letter from the Jesuit Melchior Nunes Barreto, Goa, 9 December 1551, in Wicki, Documenta, 2:239.

67 In 1539, for example, the bailiff was João Afonso, in Rego, Documentação, 2:269.

68 António Gomes, a Jesuit, to Simão Rodrigues, Goa, 20 December 1548, in Wicki, Documenta, 1:424.

69 Constituiçoens do arcebispado de Goa (Goa: João de Endem, 1568), fol. 92.

70 Jerónimo Dias to King John III of Portugal, Goa, 2 December 1539, in ANTT, Corpo Cronológico, parte I, doc. 66, m. 47.

71 Correia, Lendas, 4.1: 292–294.

72 Rego, Documentação, 3:455–489; and Luís de Albuquerque, “O inquérito aos clérigos de Diu,” in Alguns casos da Índia Portuguesa no tempo de D. João de Castro (Lisbon: Alfa, 1989), 105–149.

73 João de Vila do Conde, a Franciscan, to Viceroy João de Castro, Goa, 16 March 1547, in Rego, Documentação, 3:498–499.

74 António da Silva Rego, ed., Documentação para a História das Missões do Padroado Português do Oriente: Índia, (Lisbon: Agência Geral das Colónias 1951), 5:261–262.

75 Constituiçoens do arcebispado de Goa, fol. 96v. In New Spain, for example in the diocese of Oaxaca, there was also a network of local vicars with similar powers, see Ana de Zaballa Beascoechea, “Jurisdicción de los tribunales eclesiásticos novohispanos sobre la heterodoxia indígena: Una aproximación a su estudio,” Nuevas perspectivas sobre el castigo de la heterodoxia indígena en la Nueva España: siglos XVI-XVIII, ed. Ana de Zaballa Beascoechea (Bilbao: Universidad del Pais Vasco, 2005), 62.

76 Henrique Henriques, a Jesuit, to the Jesuit College in Coimbra, Punicale, 6 December 1547, in Wicki, Documenta, 1:225–226; and Henrique Manuel de Morais, a Jesuit, to Simão Rodrigues, Periya Talai, 11 December 1547, in Wicki, Documenta, 1:236.

77 Rego, Documentação, 4:561–562.

78 Albuquerque to King John III of Portugal, Goa, 28 November 1548, in Rego, Documentação, 4:137–138. The original of the Funchal Constitutions is unknown today.

79 Catarina Madeira Santos, ‘Goa é a chave de toda a Índia’: Perfil político da capital do Estado da Índia (1505–1570) (Lisbon: Comissão Nacional para as Comemorações dos Descobrimentos Portugueses, 1999), 209.

80 Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal (Lisbon), Henrique Bravo de Morais, Noticia de como e quando se erigio a cathedral de Goa e dos bispos e arcebispos que nella houve, códice 176, fol. 100r; and Francisco Xavier Vaz, “Confrarias na Sé de Goa,” O Oriente Portuguez 9, no. 7–8 (1912): 162.

81 Xavier, A invenção, 113.

82 Monforte, Chronica, 400.

83 Rego, Documentação, 3:44–45.

84 Felner, Subsídios, 21, 208.

85 Felner, Subsídios, 12–241.

86 Rego, Documentação, 2:271.

87 De Witte, Les lettres, 121.

88 Sebastião Gonçalves, História dos Religiosos da Companhia de Jesus e do que fizeram com a divina graça na conversão dos infiéis a nossa santa fee catholica nos reinos e provincias da India Oriental (Coimbra: Atlântida, 1960), 2:425.

89 Order of the Estado da Índia treasurer Fernando Rodrigues Castelo Branco, dated from Goa on 30 June 1541, in Rego, Documentação, 2:299–300.

90 Felner, Subsídios, 23, 27.

91 Miguel Vaz to the king, Cochin, 6 January 1543, in Documentação para a História das Missões do Padroado Português no Oriente: Insulíndia, ed. Artur Basílio de Sá (Lisbon: Agência Geral do Ultramar, 1955), 1:381.

92 Juan de Albuquerque to Queen Catherine, Goa, October 1549, in Rego, Documentação, 4:349.

93 Order of Juan de Albuquerque, dated from Goa on 29 March 1546, in Rego, Documentação, 3:331–332.

94 Alberts, Conflict and Conversion, 20.

95 Felner, Subsídios, 30, 39, 110, 128, 132, 241.

96 Felner, Subsídios, 95–96.

97 João Nunes, “O clero secular,” in História da Diocese de Viseu, ed. José Pedro Paiva (Viseu: Diocese de Viseu, 2016), 2:273.

98 Wicki, Documenta, 1:744–745.

99 Wicki, Documenta, 1:471–476.

100 Carlos Mercês de Melo, The Recruitment and Formation of the Native Clergy in India (16th–19th Centuries): A Historical-Canonical Study (Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1955), 68.

101 Corpo Diplomático Portuguez contendo os actos e relações políticas e diplomáticas de Portugal com as diversas potencias do mundo desde o século XVI até aos nossos dias (Lisbon: Academia Real das Sciencias, 1898), 11:522–524.

102 Niccolò Lancilotti, a Jesuit, to Loyola, Goa, 5 November 1546, in Wicki, Documenta, 1:138; and Juan de Albuquerque to Queen Catherine, Goa, October 1549, in Rego, Documentação, 4:357.

103 Wicki, Documenta, 1:568.

104 Francis Xavier to Francisco Mansilha, Cochin, 18 December 1544, in Rego, Documentação, 3:128.

105 Magnus Lundberg, Unification and Conflict: The Church Politics of Alonso de Montúfar OP, Archbishop of Mexico, 1554–1572 (Uppsala: Swedish Institute of Missionary Research, 2002), 73.

106 Bireley, Refashioning of Catholicism, 154.

107 Wicki, Documenta, 1:745–746.

108 Viceroy Afonso de Noronha to the Jesuit Simão Rodrigues, Cochin, 5 January 1551, in Wicki, Documenta, 2:139–141.

109 Pedro Fernandes to the king, Goa, 1550, in Wicki, Documenta, 1:745.

110 Francis Xavier to the king, Cochin, 20 January 1551, in Rego, Documentação, 4:20.

111 Juan de Albuquerque to Viceroy João de Castro, Cochin, 26 November 1547, in Rego, Documentação, 3:525–527.

112 Manuel de Morais to the Jesuit College of Coimbra, Colombo, 28 November 1552, in Wicki, Documenta, 2:431–435. See also Documentação Ultramarina Portuguesa (Lisbon: Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos, 1960), 1:612.

113 Gil González Davila, Teatro eclesiastico de la primitiva Iglesia de las Indias Occidentales, vidas de sus arzobispos, obispos y cosas memorables de sus sedes (Madrid: Diego Diaz de la Carrera, 1649), 1:22.

114 Juan de Albuquerque to the king, Goa, 5 November 1548, in Rego, Documentação, 4:111.

115 Manuel de Morais to the Jesuit College in Coimbra, Colombo, 28 November 1552, in Wicki, Documenta, 2:429.

116 Juan de Albuquerque to Viceroy João de Castro, Cochin, 28 November 1547, in ANTT, Coleção de São Lourenço, vol. 2, fol. 405v–406r.

117 Lundberg, Unification and Conflict, 97.

118 Monforte, Chronica, 402.

119 Correia, Lendas, 4.1:406.

120 Respectively, Juan de Albuquerque to the king, Goa, 5 November 1548, in Rego, Documentação, 4:108–109; and Charles Martial De Witte, “Aux origines de la congrégaion indienne de l'ordre des frères Prêcheurs (1546–1580),” Archivum Fratrum Praedicatorum 36 (1966): 470.

121 Juan de Albuquerque to the king, Goa, 28 November 1548, in Rego, Documentação, 4:138.

122 Biblioteca Nacional de Portugal (Lisbon), Henrique Bravo de Morais, Noticia de como e quando se erigio a cathedral de Goa e dos bispos e arcebispos que nella houve, códice 176, fol. 125r.

123 Rego, Documentação, 3:354.

124 The Brotherhood of the Rosary to the King, Goa, 25 October 1549, in Rego, Documentação, 4:359.

125 Ângela Barreto Xavier, “Conversos and Novamente Convertidos: Law, Religion, and Identity in the Portuguese Kingdom and Empire,” Journal of Early Modern History 15 (2011): 255–287; and Giuseppe Marcocci, A consciência de um império: Portugal e o seu mundo (sécs. XV–XVII) (Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra, 2012), 380–382.

126 Xavier, A invenção, 27, 81–144.

127 On jobs for the converted natives, see the interesting insights of Giuseppe Marcocci, “Catholic Missions and Native Subaltern Workers: Connected Micro-Histories of Labour from India and Brazil, ca. 1545–1560,” in Micro-Spatial Histories of Global Labour, ed. Christian G. de Vito and Anne Gerritsen (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 69–93.

128 Strathern, Kingship, 86, 95, 100. See also L. Bourdon, Les débuts de l”Évangelisation de Ceylan vers le milieu do XVIeme siècle d'aprés des documents récemment publiés (Lisbon: Institut Français au Portugal, 1936), 11–12, 14.

129 Sá, Documentação, 1:450.

130 Francisco Perez, a Jesuit, to the Jesuits of Goa Melaka, 24 November 1550, in Wicki, Documenta, 2:110.

131 Sá, Documentação, 1:589–592.

132 Rego, Documentação, 4:59–65.

133 Monforte, Chronica, 410–412; and Strathern, “Os Piedosos,” 860.

134 Juan de Albuquerque to Gaspar Berzé, Goa, 25 March 1550, in Rego, Documentação, 4:502–504.

135 Juan de Albuquerque to the Queen, Goa, 20 October 1549, in Rego, Documentação, 4:347.

136 Rego, Documentação, 4:551–453. This translation is intended to reflect the fact that the Portuguese original is not very clear.

137 Rego, Documentação, 4:446–447.

138 Gaspar Berzé to the Jesuit College in Coimbra, Hormuz, 24 November 1550, in Wicki, Documenta, 2:83.

139 De Witte, “Aux origines,” 470.

140 Rego, Documentação, 5:80.

141 Viriato A. C. B. de Albuquerque, “Baptismos solemnes em Goa,” O Oriente Portuguez 2, no. 9 (1905): 446.

142 Niccolò Lancilotti, a Jesuit, to the Jesuit Simão Rodrigues, Goa, 22 October 1545, in Wicki, Documenta, 1:31–32.

143 González Davila, Teatro eclesiastico, 1:26; and Ricard, La conquista, 142.

144 The same strategy was adopted in Mexico, see Crew, “Bautizando,” 951.

145 António de Paiva, a Jesuit, to the Queen, Goa, 30 November 1545, in Sá, Documentação, 1:463.

146 ANTT, Coleção de São Lourenço, vol. 3, fol. 54–58.

147 For the conversion of Loku, the best source is the letter from Juan de Albuquerque to the king, written from Goa on 28 November 28 1548, in Rego, Documentação, 4:131–133. For the baptism of Anjirō, see the letter from Paulo de Santa Fé to Loyola, written from Goa on 29 November 1548, in Wicki, Documenta, 1:339.

148 Documentação Ultramarina Portuguesa, 1:618.

149 Juan de Albuquerque to the Queen, Goa, 29 October 1549, in Rego, Documentação, 4:348–357. For the analysis of king of Tanur's conversion, see also Ines G. Županov, Missionary Tropics: The Catholic Frontiers in India (16th–17th Centuries) (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2005), 133–138.

150 Rodrigo Barbudo to the king, Goa, 28 December 1548, in Wicki, Documenta, 1:408.

151 Juan de Albuquerque to the king, Goa, 28 November 1548, in Rego, Documentação, 4:133.

152 João de Vila do Conde, a Franciscan, to the viceroy, João de Castro, Goa, 16 March 1547, in Rego, Documentação, 3:498–499. According to some authors, these “negros and negresses” were slaves, see Georg Schurhammer, Francis Xavier: His Life, His Times (Rome: The Jesuit Historical Institute, 1982), 3:299.

153 ANTT, Coleção de São Lourenço, vol. 2, fol. 419r–20v.

154 Patrícia Souza de Faria, A conquista das almas do Oriente: Franciscanos, catolicismo e poder colonial em Goa (1540–1750) (Rio de Janeiro: 7Letras, 2013), 71; and Amaro Pinto Lobo, Memória histórico-eclesiástica da arquidiocese de Goa (Nova Goa: Voz de S. Francisco Xavier, 1933), 105.

155 There is evidence from other periods and places confirming that Franciscans also circulated accounts around their institutions, “producing a Franciscan global knowledge network.” McClure, The Franciscan Invention, 50–51.

156 González Davila, Teatro eclesiastico, 1:21; and Alberto Maria Carreño, “The Books of Don Fray Juan de Zumárraga,” The Americas 5, no. 3 (1949): 314. The first book he produced was Alberto Maria Carreño, Breve y mas compendiosa doctrina en lengua mexicana y castellana que contiene las cosas más necesarias de nuestra sancta fe católica para aprovechameniento destos indios naturales y salvacion de sus ánimas (Mexico: Juan Pablos, 1539).

157 Documentação Ultramarina Portuguesa, 1:529–530; and Monforte, Chronica, 404–405.

158 For the king's support, see Rivara, Archivo Portuguez-Oriental, 5.1:161–163.

159 Wicki, Documenta, 1:118.

160 ANTT, Corpo Cronológico, I parte, m. 68, doc. 91.

161 Monforte, Chronica, 403.

162 Miguel Vaz to the king, Cochin, 6 January 1543, in Rego, Documentação, 2:343.

163 Rego, Documentação, 3:330–332.

164 António Ponce to the king, Goa, October 1548, in Rego, Documentação, 4:55.

165 C. R. Boxer, Race Relations in the Portuguese Colonial Empire 1415–1825 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963), 61–62; and Marcocci, A consciência de um império, 387.

166 Wicki, Documenta, 1:12–16.

167 Wicki, Documenta, 2:125–126.

168 Manuel Nunes to the Queen, Goa, 20 December 1552, in Rego, Documentação, 5:297.

169 For example Rego, História das missões, 203, 221; Melo, Recruitment and Formation, 17; Mendonça, Conversions and Citizenry, 7, 10, 20, 23, 109; Aranha, Il cristianesimo, 118–134; and Pius Malenkandathil, “Diocese do Funchal e estratégias missionárias na Índia: 1514–1550,” in Diocese do Funchal: A primeira diocese global; História, cultura e espiritualidades, ed. José Eduardo Franco and João Paulo Oliveira e Costa (Funchal: Diocese do Funchal, 2015), 184–185.

170 Xavier, A invenção, 99–109; and Xavier, “Conversos,” 277.

171 Rego, Documentação, 2:324–344; and Wicki, Documenta, 1:63–89.

172 Wicki, Documenta, 1:92.