Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-11T02:43:10.707Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Alteration of Volcanic Rocks and Genesis of Kaolin Deposits in the Şile Region, Northern Istanbul, Turkey. I: Clay mineralogy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2024

O. Isik Ece ,
Zenbe-E Nakagawa  and
Paul A. Schroeder
O. Isik Ece*
Affiliation:
Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Mines, Mineralogy-Petrography Division, Maslak, 80626 Istanbul, Turkey Akita University, Research Institute of Materials and Resources, Faculty of Engineering and Resources Science, Tegatagakuen-Cho, Akita 010-8502, Japan
Zenbe-E Nakagawa
Affiliation:
Akita University, Research Institute of Materials and Resources, Faculty of Engineering and Resources Science, Tegatagakuen-Cho, Akita 010-8502, Japan
Paul A. Schroeder
Affiliation:
University of Georgia, Department of Geology, Athens, GA 30602-2501, USA
*
*E-mail address of corresponding author: ece@itu.edu.tr
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

The Şile Region contains discontinuous, cyclic, thin coal beds and industrial clay deposits that were accumulated in lacustrine basins which received extensive volcanoclastic sediments due to transport of highly weathered calc-alkaline volcanic rocks. The Sülüklü area has the largest kaolin deposit in this region. Cyclic kaolinization depended on the degree of leaching of Si and alkalis in cyclic swamp environments and, therefore, kaolinite contents vary in each discontinuous lens-shaped clay bed and underclay within the basin. The kaolins comprise disordered kaolinite, illite, smectite, gibbsite, quartz, pyrite, anatase, K-feldspar and goethite. Depth-related changes in the distribution of clay minerals, associated with coal beds, are indicative of organic acid-mineral reactions. Kaolinite crystallization initiated at the edges of sericitic mica sheets in the form of composite kaolinite stacks. The small size (<1 µm), morphology and poor crystallinity of kaolinite crystals suggest that kaolinization post dated transportation. Primary or secondary origins of particles can be determined from the stacking sequences of kaolinite particles using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy images. Kaolinite stacks always contain a small amount of illite, but smectite is only present in the middle and upper levels. Gibbsite is a main constituent of refractory bauxitic clays locally found as discontinuous lenses and exploited from the lower level of the basin.

Genesis of kaolin deposits took place in two stages: first, there was in situ weathering of the oldest andesitic agglomerates, tuffs and ashes at the base of the lacustrine basin coupled with discharge of shallow thermal waters which were initiated by local hydrothermal alteration; second, surface weathering enhanced transportation of altered rocks from the surrounding hills into the lacustrine basin. Kaolinization took place in cyclic swamp environments, as indicated by the presence of cyclic thin- to thick-bedded coals that provided necessary humic and fulvic acids for the post-depositional alteration of altered volcanic rocks to kaolin in dysaerobic, relatively low-pH conditions in saturated groundwater zones.

Keywords

Andesitic SuiteCoal BedsDTADysaerobicFTIRKaoliniteLacustrine BasinSEMTEMWeathering
Type
Research Article
Information
Clays and Clay Minerals , Volume 51 , Issue 6 , December 2003 , pp. 675 - 688
Copyright
Copyright © 2003, The Clay Minerals Society

References

Abdülselamoǵlu, S., (1963) Istanbul boǵaz doǵusunda mostra veren Paleozoyik arazide stratigrafik ve paleontolojik yeni müşahedeler MTA Dergisi 60 1–7.Google Scholar
Baykal, F. and Kaya, O., (1965) Istanbul Siluryeni hakknda MTA Dergisi 64 1–8.Google Scholar
Bohor, B.F. and Triplehorn, D.M. (1993) Tonsteins: Altered volcanic ash layers in coal-bearing sequences. Geological Society of America Special Paper, 285, 44 pp.Google Scholar
Calvert, C.S., (1984) Simplified, complete CsCl-hydrazinedimethysulfoxide intercalataion of kaolinite Clays and Clay Minerals 32 125–130 10.1346/CCMN.1984.0320206.Google Scholar
Cases, J.M. Lietard, O. Yvon, J. and Delon, J.F., (1982) Estude des propriétés cristallchimiques, morphologiques, superficielles de kaolinites désordonnés Bulletin de Mineralogié 105 439–455.Google Scholar
Çoban, F. Ece, I. Yavuz, O. and Özdamar, , (2002) Petrogenesis of volcanic rocks and clay mineralogy and genesis of underclays, Şile Region, Ïstanbul, Turkey Neues Jahrbuch für Mineralogie Abhandlungen 178 1–25.Google Scholar
Costanzo, P.M. Giese, R.F. Jr. and Clemency, C.V., (1984) Synthesis of a 10 Å hydrated kaolinite Clays and Clay Minerals 32 29–35 10.1346/CCMN.1984.0320104.Google Scholar
Dowbrowski, T., Murray, H. Bundy, W. and Harvey, C., (1993) Theories of origin for the Georgia kaolins: A review Kaolin Genesis and Utilization Bloomington, Indiana The Clay Minerals Society 75–97.Google Scholar
Ece, Ö.I. and Nakagawa, Z. (2003) Alteration of volcanic rocks and genesis of kaolin deposits in Şile Region, Northern Ïstanbul, Turkey. II: Differential mobility of elements. Clay Minerals (in press).Google Scholar
Evangelou, V.P., (1995) Pyrite Oxidation and its Control New York CRC Press 293 pp.Google Scholar
Farmer, V.C., (1964) Infrared absorption of hydroxyl groups in kaolinite Science 145 1189–1190 10.1126/science.145.3637.1189.Google Scholar
Giese, R.F. and Bailey, S.W., (1988) Kaolin minerals: structures and stabilities Hydrous Phyllosilicates Washington, D.C. Mineralogical Society of America 29–66 10.1515/9781501508998-008.Google Scholar
Hathaway, J.C., (1956) Procedure for clay mineral analysis used in the sedimentary petrology laboratory of the U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Bulletin 3 8–13 10.1180/claymin.1956.003.15.05.Google Scholar
Holdridge, D.A. Vaughan, F. and Mackenzie, R.C., (1957) The kaolin minerals The Differential Thermal Investigations of Clays London The Mineralogical Society 224–286.Google Scholar
Hurst, V. and Pickering, S., (1997) Origin and classification of Coastal Plain kaolins, Southwestern USA, and the role of groundwater and microbial action Clays and Clay Minerals 45 274–285 10.1346/CCMN.1997.0450215.Google Scholar
Kaya, O., (1971) Istanbul’un Karbofiner stratigrafisi Türkiye Jeoloji Kurumu Bulteni 14/2 143–199.Google Scholar
Kaya, O., (1973) Paleozoic of Istanbul Ege Universitesi Fen Fakültesi Yayn 40 1–25.Google Scholar
Kaya, O., (1978) Istanbul Ordovisiyen ve Siluryeni Hacettepe Yerbilimleri Dergisi 4/1–2 1–22.Google Scholar
Keller, W.D., Pickett, E.E. and Reeman, A.L. (1966) Elevated hydroxyl temperature of the Keokuk geode kaolinite — a pos sible reference material. Proceedings of the International Clay Conference, Jerusalem, 75–85.Google Scholar
Kodama, H. and Oinuma, K., (1963) Identification of kaolin minerals in the presence of chlorite by X-ray diffraction and infrared absorption spectra Clays and Clay Minerals 11 236–249 10.1346/CCMN.1962.0110123.Google Scholar
Lim, C.H. Jackson, M.L. and Higashi, T., (1981) Intercalation of soil clays with dimethysulfoxide Soil Science Society of America Journal 45 433–436 10.2136/sssaj1981.03615995004500020039x.Google Scholar
Loughnan, F.C., (1978) Flint clays, tonsteins and the kaolinite clayrock facies Clay Minerals 13 387–400 10.1180/claymin.1978.013.4.04.Google Scholar
Ma, C. and Eggleton, R., (1999) Surface layer types of kaolinite: A high-resolution transmission electron microscope study Clays and Clay Minerals 47 181–191 10.1346/CCMN.1999.0470208.Google Scholar
Mackenzie, R.C. and Mackenzie, R.C., (1970) Simple phyllosilicates based on gibbsite- and brucite-like sheets Differential Thermal Analysis London Academic Press 498–537.Google Scholar
Mendelovici, E. Yaris, S. and Villalbor, R., (1979) Iron-bearing kaolinite in Venezuelan laterites. 1. Infrared spectroscopy and chemical dissolution evidence Clay Minerals 14 323–331 10.1180/claymin.1979.014.4.08.Google Scholar
Muller, J.-P. and Bocquier, G. (1985) Textural and mineralogical relationships between between ferruginous nodules and surrounding clayey matrices in a laterite from Cameroon. Proceedings of the International Clay Conference, Denver, pp. 186–194.Google Scholar
Murray, H.H. Keller, W.D., Murray, H. Bundy, W. and Harvey, C., (1993) Kaolins, kaolins and kaolins Kaolin Genesis and Utilization Bloomington, Indiana The Clay Minerals Society 1–24.Google Scholar
Okay, A.C., (1948) Şile, Mudarl, Kartal ve Riva arasndaki bölgenin jeolojik etüdü Istanbul Universitesi Fen Fakültesi Mecmuas XIII/4 311–335.Google Scholar
Özdamar, S. (1998) Clay mineralogy of underclays in the Şile region, Istanbul, Türkiye. MSc thesis, Istanbul Technical University, 117 pp.Google Scholar
Patterson, S.H. and Murray, H.H. (1984) Kaolin, refractory clay, ball clay and halloysite in North America, Hawaii and the Caribbean region. US Geological Survey Professional Paper, 1306, 56 pp.Google Scholar
Robertson, R.H.S. Brindley, G.W. and MacKenzie, R.C., (1954) Mineralogy of kaolin clays from Pugu, Tanganyika American Mineralogist 39 18–139.Google Scholar
Russell, J.D. Fraser, A.R. and Wilson, M.J., (1995) Infrared methods Clay Mineralogy London Chapman & Hall 11–67.Google Scholar
Satokawa, S. Miyawaki, R. Tomura, S. and Shibasaki, Y., (1997) DMSO-Intercalation of synthetic kaolinites Clay Science 10 231–239.Google Scholar
Schroeder, P.A., Rule, A.C. and Guggenheim, S., (2002) Infrared spectroscopy in clay science Teaching Clay Science Denver, Colorado Clay Minerals Society 182–206 10.1346/CMS-WLS-11.11.Google Scholar
Schroeder, P.A. and Shiflet, J., (2000) Ti-bearing phases in the Huber Formation, an east Georgia kaolin deposit Clays and Clay Minerals 48 151–158 10.1346/CCMN.2000.0480201.Google Scholar
Thompson, J.G. and Cuff, C., (1985) Crystal structure of kaolinite: Dimethylsulfoxide intercalate Clays and Clay Minerals 33 490–500 10.1346/CCMN.1985.0330603.Google Scholar
Thompson, L.G. FitzGerald, J.D. and Withers, R.L., (1989) Electron diffraction evidence for C-centering of non-hydrogen atoms in kaolinite Clays and Clay Minerals 37 563–565 10.1346/CCMN.1989.0370610.Google Scholar
Tüysüz, O., (1999) Geology of the Cretaceous sedimentary basins of the Western Pontides Geological Journal 34 75–93 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1034(199901/06)34:1/2<75::AID-GJ815>3.0.CO;2-S.Google Scholar
Weaver, C.E., (1976) The nature of TiO2 in kaolinite Clays and Clay Minerals 24 215–218 10.1346/CCMN.1976.0240501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weiss, A., Thielepape, W., Goring, G., Ritter, W. and Schfer, H. (1963) Kaolinite intercalation compounds. Proceedings of the International Clay Conference, Stockholm, pp. 287–305.Google Scholar
Yeniyol, M., (1984) Istanbul killerinin olusumu (occurrence of clays of Istanbul) Turkiye Jeoloji Kurumu Bulteni 5 143–150.Google Scholar
Yeniyol, M. and Ercan, T., (1989) Geology of the Northern Istanbul, petrochemical characteristics of Upper Cretaceous volcanism and its regional distribution in Pontides I. U. Yerbilimleri Dergisi 7 125–147.Google Scholar
Yilmaz, Y. Tüysüz, O. and Yigitbaş, E., (1997) Geology and tectonic evolution of the Pontides Regional and Petroleum Geology of the Black Sea and Surrounding Region 183–226.Google Scholar