Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T09:16:11.428Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Tracking Fluid Movement During Cyclic Steam Stimulation of Clearwater Formation Oil Sands Using Stable Isotope Variations of Clay Minerals

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2024

Jennifer L. McKay  and
Frederick J. Longstaffe
Jennifer L. McKay*
Affiliation:
College of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA
Frederick J. Longstaffe
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5B7, Canada
*
*E-mail address of corresponding author: mckay_jen@yahoo.ca
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

In situ thermal recovery methods such as cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) are required to extract highly viscous bitumen from the Clearwater Formation oil sands of Alberta, Canada. The injection of hot fluids during CSS has altered the mineralogy of the sands, resulting in the loss of some minerals (e.g. disseminated siderite, volcanic glass) and precipitation of others (e.g. zeolites and abundant hydroxy-interlayered smectite). The high temperatures and high water—rock ratios associated with CSS might also alter the oxygen and hydrogen isotopic compositions of pre-existing clay minerals even in the absence of mineralogical changes. The present study exploits this fact to track the movement of injected hot fluids during CSS. Berthierine, a common diagenetic clay mineral in the Clearwater sands, survived CSS but acquired substantially lower δ18O and δ2H values in cores located ≤ 10 m from the injection well. In contrast, the oxygen and hydrogen isotopic compositions of berthierine in cores located further from the injection well were generally unaffected, except at the depth of steam injection where horizontal fractures facilitate greater lateral penetration of hot fluids. Smectitic clays in near-injector cores also acquired lower δ18O values during CSS, but a systematic shift in δ2H values was not observed. While hydrogen-isotope exchange undoubtedly occurred, the particular combination of temperature and H isotopic composition of the injected fluid used during CSS appears to have yielded post-steam δ2H values that are indistinguishable from pre-steam values. Only samples from near-injector core G-OB3 that contain hydroxy-interlayered smectite have lower δ2H values as a result of CSS.

Keywords

BerthierineHydrogen IsotopesOil SandsOxygen IsotopesSmectite
Type
Article
Information
Clays and Clay Minerals , Volume 61 , Issue 5 , October 2013 , pp. 440 - 460
Copyright
Copyright © Clay Minerals Society 2013

References

Abercrombie, H.J. Shevalier, M. Hutcheon, I.E., Miles, D.L., 1989 Natural diagenesis: A model for artificial diagenesis during steam-assisted recovery of heavy oil, Cold Lake, Alberta, Canada Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Water—Rock Interaction Rotterdam Balkema 1–4.Google Scholar
Beckie, K.N. McIntosh, R.A., Meyer, R.F. and Wiggins, E.J., 1989 Geology and resources of the Primrose crude bitumen deposits, northeastern Alberta Fourth UNITAR/UNDP Conference on Heavy Crude and Tar Sands, Vol. 2 Geology, chemistry 19–36.Google Scholar
Bird, M.I. and Chivas, A.R., 1988 Stable-isotope evidence for low-temperature kaolinitic weathering and post-formational hydrogen-isotope exchange in Permian kaolinites Chemical Geology (Isotope Geoscience Section) 72 249–265.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biscaye, P.E., 1965 Mineralogy and sedimentation of recent deep-sea clay in the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent seas and oceans Geological Society of America Bulletin 76 803–832.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boon, J.A., 1977 Fluid-rock interactions during steam injection The Oil Sands of Canada/ Venezuela 17 133–138.Google Scholar
Boon, J.A. and Hitchon, B., 1983 Application of fluid-rock reaction studies to in situ recovery from oil sand deposits, Alberta, Canada—II. Mineral transformations during an experimental-statistical study of water-bitumen-shale reactions Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 47 249–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boon, J.A. Hamilton, T. Holloway, L. and Wiwchar, B., 1983 Reaction between rock matrix and injected fluids in Cold Lake oil sands - potential for formation damage Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology 22 55–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Capuano, R.M., 1992 The temperature dependence of hydrogen isotope fractionation between clay minerals and water: Evidence from a geopressured system Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 56 2547–2554.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cathles, L.M. Schoell, M. and Simon, R., 1990 A kinetic model of CO2 generation and mineral and isotopic alteration during steamflooding SPE Reservoir Engineering 5 524–530.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chakrabarty, T. and Longo, J.M., 1994 Production problems in the steam-stimulated shaley oil sands of the Cold Lake reservoir: Cause and possible solutions The Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology 33 34–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clayton, R.N. and Mayeda, T.K., 1963 The use of bromine pentafluoride in the extraction of oxygen from oxides and silicates for isotopic analysis Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 27 43–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Coleman, M.L. Shepherd, T.J. Durham, J.J. Rouse, J.E. and Moore, G.R., 1982 Reduction of water with zinc for hydrogen isotope analysis Analytical Chemistry 54 993–995.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Draper, R.G. Yates, A. and Chantler, HMcD, 1955.A comparison of three laboratory methods for determining the bitumen content of bituminous sandsCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dudley, J.S. Moore, C.H., Kharaka, Y.K. and Maest, A.S., 1992 Computer modeling of steam flood experiments Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Water—Rock Interaction Rotterdam Balkema 1223–1226.Google Scholar
ECRB, 2012 Alberta Energy Reserves 2011 and Supply/Demand Outlook for 2012—21 Calgary, Alberta Energy Resources Conservation Board Reserve Report ST98—2012.Google Scholar
Fagan, R., 2001 Oxygen- and hydrogen-isotope study of hydroxyl group behavior in standard smectite and kaolinite Canada The University of Western Ontario.Google Scholar
Fagan, R. and Longstaffe, F.J., 1996 The effects of laboratory pretreatments on the hydrogen- and oxygen-isotope compositions of clay minerals Clays in and for the Environment 33rd.Google Scholar
Fialka, B.N. McClanahan, R.K. Robb, G.A. and Longstaffe, F.J., 1993 The evaluation of cyclic steam stimulation in an oil sand reservoir using post-steam core analysis Canadian Journal of Petroleum Technology 32 56–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallant, R.J. Stark, S.D. and Taylor, M.D., 1993 Steaming and operation strategies at a midlife CSS Operation.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilg, H.A. and Sheppard, S.M.F., 1996 Hydrogen isotope fractionation between kaolinite and water revisited Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 60 529–533.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Godfrey, J.D., 1962 The deuterium content of hydrous minerals from the east-central Sierra Nevada and Yosemite National Park Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 26 1215–1245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunter, W.D. and Bird, G.W., 1988 CO2 production in tar sand reservoirs under in situ steam temperatures: reactive calcite dissolution Chemical Geology 70 301–311.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunter, W.D. Bird, G.W. Aggarwal, P.K. Leone, J.A., Meyer, R.F. and Wiggins, E.J., 1989 Modeling of smectite synthesis in reservoir sands: comparison of PATH predictions to autoclave experiments Fourth UNITAR/UNDP International Conference on Heavy Crudes and Tar Sands, Vol. 3 Mining, drilling 383–398.Google Scholar
Harrison, D.B. Glaister, R.P. Nelson, H.W., Meyer, R.F. Steel, C.T. and Olson, J.C., 1981 Reservoir description of the Clearwater oil sands, Cold Lake, Alberta, Canada The Future of Heavy Crude and Tar Sands New York McGraw Hill 264–279.Google Scholar
He, S., 2001 Water—rock interactions during steaming of Clearwater oil sands London, Ontario, Canada The University of Western Ontario.Google Scholar
Hebner, B.A. Bird, G.W. and Longstaffe, F.J., 1986 Fluid/ pore-mineral transformations during simulated steam injection: Implications for reduced permeability damage Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology 25 1–6.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horita, J. Cole, D.R. and Wesolowski, D.J., 1995 The activity-composition relationship of oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in aqueous salt solutions: III. Vapor-water equilibration of NaCl solutions to 350ºC Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59 1139–1151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horita, J. Driesner, T. and Cole, D.R., 1999 Pressure effect on hydrogen isotope fractionation between brucite and water at elevated temperatures Science 286 1545–1547.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horita, J. Cole, D.R. Polyakov, V.B. and Driesner, T., 2002 Experimental and theoretical study of pressure effects on hydrogen isotope fractionation in the system brucite-water at elevated temperatures Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 66 3769–3788.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hornibrook, E.R.C. and Longstaffe, F.J., 1996 Berthierine from the Lower Cretaceous Clearwater Formation, Alberta, Canada Clays and Clay Minerals 44 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huang, W. and Longo, J.M., 1994 Experimental studies of silicate-carbonate reactions—II. Applications to steam flooding of oil sands Applied Geochemistry 9 523–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hutcheon, I., McDonald, D.A. and Surdam, R.C., 1984 A review of artificial diagenesis during thermally enhanced recovery Clastic Diagenesis USA American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 37, Tulsa, Oklahoma 413–429.Google Scholar
Hutcheon, I. Abercrombie, H.J., Meshri, I.D. and Ortoleva, P.J., 1990 Fluid-rock interaction in thermal recovery of bitumen, Tucker Lake Pilot, Cold Lake, Alberta Prediction of Reservoir Quality Through Chemical Modeling Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA American Association of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 49 161–170.Google Scholar
Hutcheon, I. Abercrombie, H.J. Shevalier, M. and Nahnybida, C., 1989 A comparison of formation reactivity in quartz-rich and quartz-poor reservoirs during steam assisted recovery Fourth UNITAR/UNDP International Conference on Heavy Crude and Tar Sands 4 747–757.Google Scholar
Hutcheon, I. Abercrombie, H.J. and Krouse, H.R., 1990 Inorganic origin of carbon dioxide during low temperature thermal recovery of bitumen: Chemical and isotopic evidence Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 54 165–171.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jiang, Q. Thornton, B. Russel-Houston, J. and Spence, S., 2010 Review of thermal recovery technologies for the Clearwater and Lower Grand Rapids formations in Cold Lake, Alberta Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology 49 57–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirk, J.S. Bird, G.W. and Longstaffe, F.J., 1987 Laboratory study of the effects of steam condensate flooding in the Clearwater Formation: High temperature flow experiments Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology 35 34–47.Google Scholar
Kry, P.R., 1992.In-situ recovery technology at Cold Lake, Alberta, CanadaGoogle Scholar
Kyser, T.K., 1987 Equilibrium fractionation factors for stable isotopes Mineralogical Association of Canada Short Course in Stable Isotope Geochemistry 13 1–84.Google Scholar
Kyser, T.K. Kerrich, R., Taylor, H.P. Jr. O’Neil, J.R. and Kaplan, I.R., 1991 Retrograde exchange of hydrogen isotopes between hydrous minerals and water at low temperatures Stable Isotope Geochemistry: A tribute to Samuel Epstein Missouri, USA Special Publication 3, The Geochemical Society, St. Louis 409–422.Google Scholar
Kyser, T.K. and O’Neil, J.R., 1984 Hydrogen isotope systematics of submarine basalts Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 48 2123–2133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lefebvre, R. and Hutcheon, I., 1986 Mineral reactions in quartzose rocks during thermal recovery of heavy oil, Lloydminster, Saskatchewan, Canada Applied Geochemistry 1 395–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Longstaffe, F.J., Parker, A. and Sellwood, B.W., 1994 Stable isotopic constraints on sandstone diagenesis in the western Canada sedimentary basin Quantitative Diagenesis: Recent Developments and Applications to Reservoir Geology 223–274.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Longstaffe, F.J. and Ayalon, A., 1990 Hydrogen-isotope geochemistry of diagenetic clay minerals from Cretaceous sandstones, Alberta, Canada: evidence for exchange Applied Geochemistry 5 657–668.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Longstaffe, F.J. Racki, M.A. Ayalon, A. Wickert, L.M. Wightman, D.M. and Bird, G.W., 1990 Water-mineral-organic matter interactions during clastic diagenesis of Cretaceous heavy oil reservoirs, Cold Lake area, Alberta American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 74 1306–1307.Google Scholar
Longstaffe, F.J. Ayalon, A. Racki, M.A., Kharaka, Y.K. and Maest, A.S., 1992 Stable isotope studies of diagenesis in berthierine-bearing oil sands, Clearwater Formation, Alberta Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Water—Rock Interaction Rotterdam Balkema 955–958.Google Scholar
Marcano, N., 2011 Isotopic and molecular studies of biodegraded oils and the development of chemical proxies for monitoring in situ upgrading of bitumen Calgary, Alberta, Canada The University Calgary.Google Scholar
Marumo, K. Nagasawa, K. and Kuroda, Y., 1980 Mineralogy and hydrogen isotope geochemistry of clay minerals in the Ohnuma geothermal area, northeastern Japan Earth and Planetary Science Letters 47 255–262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marumo, K. Longstaffe, F.J. and Matsubaya, O., 1995 Stable isotope geochemistry of clay minerals from fossil and active hydrothermal systems, southwestern Hokkaido, Japan Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59 2545–2559.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCrimmon, G.G. and Arnott, R.W.C., 1995 The Clearwater Formation, Cold Lake, Alberta: a world class hydrocarbon reservoir hosted in a complex succession of tide-dominated deltaic deposits Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology 50 370–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McKay, J.L. and Longstaffe, F.J., 1997 Diagenesis of the Lower Cretaceous Clearwater Formation, Primrose area, northeastern Alberta The Mannville 18 392–412.Google Scholar
Mizota, C. and Longstaffe, F.J., 1996 Origin of Cretaceous and Oligocene kaolinites from the Iwaizumi clay deposit, Iwate, northeastern Japan Clays and Clay Minerals 44 408–416.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mok, U., Wiwchar, B., Gunter, W.D., and Longstaffe, F.J. (1995) The distribution, morphology, and composition of minerals formed by hydrothermal alteration of an immature sand during a flow-through experiment. Geological Association of Canada-Mineralogical Association of Canada, Program with Abstracts, v. 20, p. A72.Google Scholar
O’Neil, J.R., 1987 Preservation of H, C, and O isotopic ratios in the low temperature environment Mineralogical Association of Canada Short Course in Stable Isotope Geochemistry 13 85–128.Google Scholar
O’Neil, J.R. and Kharaka, Y.K., 1976 Hydrogen and oxygen isotope exchange reactions between clay minerals and water Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 40 241–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perry, C. and Gillott, J.E., 1979 The formation and behaviour of montmorillonite during the use of wet forward combustion in the Alberta oil sand deposits Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology 27 314–325.Google Scholar
Prentice, M.E. and Wightman, D.M., 1987.Mineralogy of the Clearwater Formation, Cold Lake oil sands area: implications for enhanced oil recoveryGoogle Scholar
Putnam, P.E. and Pedskalny, M.A., 1983 Provenance of Clearwater Formation reservoir sandstones, Cold Lake, Alberta, with comments on feldspar composition Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology 5 148–160.Google Scholar
Racki, M., 1991 Diagenesis of the Clearwater Formation, Cold Lake, Alberta London, Ontario, Canada The University of Western Ontario.Google Scholar
Roether, W., 1970 Water-CO2exchange set-up for the routine O-18 assay of natural waters International Journal of Applied Radiation and Isotopes 21 379–387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Savin, S.M. and Epstein, S., 1970 The oxygen and hydrogen isotope geochemistry of clay minerals Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 34 25–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Savin, S.M. and Hsieh, J.C.C., 1998 The hydrogen and oxygen isotope geochemistry of pedogenic clay minerals: principles and theoretical background Geoderma 82 227–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Savin, S.M. and Lee, M., 1988 Isotope studies of phyllo-silicates Hydrous Phyllosilicates (Exclusive of Micas) 19 189–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sedimentology Research Group, 1981 The effects of in situ steam injection on Cold Lake oil sands Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology 29 447–478.Google Scholar
Shepherd, D.W., Meyer, R.F. Wynn, J.C. and Olson, J.C., 1981 Steam stimulation recovery of Cold Lake bitumen The Future of Heavy Crude and Tar Sands New York MaGraw-Hill 349–360.Google Scholar
Sheppard, S.M.F. and Gilg, H.A., 1996 Stable isotope geochemistry of clay minerals Clay Minerals 31 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shevalier, M. Hutcheon, I. Nahnybida, C. Abercrombie, H., Kharaka, Y.K. and Maest, A.S., 1992 Contrasts between steam stimulation and in-situ combustion process: an analysis of co-produced fluid compositional data Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Water—Rock Interaction Rotterdam Balkema 1125–1128.Google Scholar
Suzuoki, T. and Epstein, S., 1976 Hydrogen isotope fractionation between OH-bearing minerals and water Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 40 1229–1240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tilley, B.J. and Gunter, W.D., 1988 Mineralogy and water chemistry of the burnt zone from a wet combustion pilot in Alberta Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology 36 25–39.Google Scholar
Visser, K. Dankers, P.H.M. Leckie, D. VanDer Marel, A.G.P., Meyer, R.F., 1985 Mineralogy and geology of the Clearwater reservoir sands in the Wolf Lake Area, Cold Lake, Alberta Third UNITAR/UNDP International Conference on Heavy Crude and Tar Sands 118–133.Google Scholar
Vittoratos, E., 1986 Interpretation of temperature profiles from the steam-stimulated Cold Lake reservoir Proceedings 56th California Regional Meeting of the Society of Petroleum Engineers 243–254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wickert, L.M., 1992 Stratigraphy and diagenesis of the Clearwater Formation Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Department of Geology, University of Alberta.Google Scholar
Yeh, H.-W. and Savin, S.M., 1977 Mechanism of burial metamorphism of argillaceous sediments: 3. O-isotope evidence Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 88 1321–1330.2.0.CO;2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zhou, Z. Gunter, W.D. Kadatz, B. Cameron, S., Meyer, R.F., 1995 Hydrothermal stability of the clay minerals from the Clearwater reservoirs at Cold Lake, Alberta Heavy Crude and Tar Sands—Fueling for a Clean and Safe Environment, volume 2 6th Tar Sands UNITAR International Conference on Heavy Crude and 27–35.Google Scholar
Zhou, Z. Dudley, J.S. Wiwchar, B. and Gunter, W.D., 1999 The potential of permeability damage during thermal recovery of Cold Lake bitumen Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology 38 55–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar