Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T18:19:55.718Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Drug–drug interactions and clinical considerations with co-administration of antiretrovirals and psychotropic drugs

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 October 2018

Kellie J. Goodlet Open the ORCID record for Kellie J. Goodlet [Opens in a new window] ,
Monika T. Zmarlicka  and
Alyssa M. Peckham
Kellie J. Goodlet*
Affiliation:
Department of Pharmacy Practice, College of Pharmacy, Midwestern University, Glendale, Arizona, USA
Monika T. Zmarlicka
Affiliation:
Department of Pharmacy, Maricopa Medical Center, Phoenix, Arizona, USA
Alyssa M. Peckham
Affiliation:
School of Pharmacy, Bouvé College of Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA Department of Pharmacy, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
*
*Address for correspondence: Kellie J. Goodlet, PharmD, 19555 N 59th Ave, Glendale, AZ 85308, USA. (Email: kgoodlet@midwestern.edu)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Psychotropic medications are frequently co-prescribed with antiretroviral therapy (ART), owing to a high prevalence of psychiatric illness within the population living with HIV, as well as a 7-fold increased risk of HIV infection among patients with psychiatric illness. While ART has been notoriously associated with a multitude of pharmacokinetic drug interactions involving the cytochrome P450 enzyme system, the magnitude and clinical impact of these interactions with psychotropics may range from negligible effects on plasma concentrations to life-threatening torsades de pointes or respiratory depression. This comprehensive review summarizes the currently available information regarding drug–drug interactions between antiretrovirals and pharmacologic agents utilized in the treatment of psychiatric disorders—antidepressants, stimulants, antipsychotics, anxiolytics, mood stabilizers, and treatments for opioid use disorder and alcohol use disorder—and provides recommendations for their management. Additionally, overlapping toxicities between antiretrovirals and the psychotropic classes are highlighted. Knowledge of the interaction and adverse effect potential of specific antiretrovirals and psychotropics will allow clinicians to make informed prescribing decisions to better promote the health and wellness of this high-risk population.

Keywords

AIDSantidepressantsantipsychoticsantiretroviral therapyanxiolyticsdrug interactionsHIV
Type
Review
Information
CNS Spectrums , Volume 24 , Issue 3 , June 2019 , pp. 287 - 312
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. National Institute of Mental Health. HIV/AIDS and mental health. 2016. Retrieved November 20, 2017. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/hiv-aids/index.shtml Google Scholar
2. World Health Organization. HIV/AIDS and mental health: Report by the Secretariat. 2017. Retrieved November 20, 2017. http://apps.who.int/gb/archive/pdf_files/EB124/B124_6-en.pdf Google Scholar
3. Angelino, AF. Impact of psychiatric disorders on the HIV epidemic. Top HIV Med. 2008; 16(2): 99–103.Google Scholar
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV transmission. 2017. Retrieved November 20, 2017. https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/transmission.html Google Scholar
5. Chaudhury, S, Bakhla, AK, Saini, R. Prevalence, impact, and management of depression and anxiety in patients with HIV: a review. Neurobehav HIV Med. 2016; 2016(7): 15–30.Google Scholar
6. Forstein, M. The psychosocial impact of the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Semin Oncol. 1984; 11(1): 77–82.Google Scholar
7. Silva, MC, Ximenes, RA, Miranda Filho, DB, et al. Risk-factors for non-adherence to antiretroviral therapy. Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 2009; 51(3): 135–139.Google Scholar
8. Beer, L, Skarbinski, J. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected adults in the United States. AIDS Educ Prev. 2014; 26(6): 521–537.Google Scholar
9. Farinpour, R, Miller, EN, Satz, P, et al. Psychosocial risk factors of HIV morbidity and mortality: findings from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2003; 25(5): 654–670.Google Scholar
10. Gonzalez, JS, Batchelder, AW, Psaros, C, et al. Depression and HIV/AIDS treatment nonadherence: a review and meta-analysis. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011; 58(2): 181–187.Google Scholar
11. Leserman, J. Role of depression, stress, and trauma in HIV disease progression. Psychosom Med. 2008; 70(5): 539–545.Google Scholar
12. Starace, F, Ammassari, A, Trotta, MP, et al. Depression is a risk factor for suboptimal adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002; 31(Suppl 3): S136–S139.Google Scholar
13. Schaecher, KL. The importance of treatment adherence in HIV. Am J Manag Care. 2013; 19(12 Suppl): S231–237.Google Scholar
14. Sherbourne, CD, Hays, RD, Fleishman, JA, et al. Impact of psychiatric conditions on health-related quality of life in persons with HIV infection. Am J Psychiatry. 2000; 157(2): 248–254.Google Scholar
15. Boillat-Blanco, N, Darling, KE, Taffe, P, et al. Impact of recommendation updates in well-controlled patients on nonrecommended antiretroviral therapies: the Swiss HIV cohort study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013; 62(2): 180–189.Google Scholar
16. Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in Adults and Adolescents Living with HIV. Department of Health and Human Services. Available at http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/ContentFiles/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf. Accessed December 12, 2017.Google Scholar
17. Ogu, CC, Maxa, JL. Drug interactions due to cytochrome P450. Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent). 2000; 13(4): 421–423.Google Scholar
18. Lund, M, Petersen, TS, Dalhoff, KP. Clinical implications of p-glycoprotein modulation in drug-drug interactions. Drugs. 2017; 77(8): 859–883.Google Scholar
19. Wagner, GJ, Goggin, K, Remien, RH, et al. A closer look at depression and its relationship to HIV antiretroviral adherence. Ann Behav Med. 2011; 42(3): 352–360.Google Scholar
20. Watkins, CC, Pieper, AA, Treisman, GJ. Safety considerations in drug treatment of depression in HIV-positive patients: an updated review. Drug Saf. 2011; 34(8): 623–639.Google Scholar
21. Bauer, M, Bschor, T, Pfennig, A, et al. World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for biological treatment of unipolar depressive disorders in primary care. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2007; 8(2): 67–104.Google Scholar
22. von Moltke, LL, Greenblatt, DJ, Giancarlo, GM, et al. Escitalopram (S-citalopram) and its metabolites in vitro: cytochromes mediating biotransformation, inhibitory effects, and comparison to R-citalopram. Drug Metab Dispos. 2001; 29(8): 1102–1109.Google Scholar
23. Gutierrez, MM, Rosenberg, J, Abramowitz, W. An evaluation of the potential for pharmacokinetic interaction between escitalopram and the cytochrome P450 3A4 inhibitor ritonavir. Clin Ther. 2003; 25(4): 1200–1210.Google Scholar
24. Gutierrez, M, Abramowitz, VE. Lack of effect of a single dose of ketoconazole on the pharmacokinetics of citalopram. Pharmacotherapy. 2001; 21(2): 163–168.Google Scholar
25. Malling, D, Poulsen, MN, Søgaard, B. The effect of cimetidine or omeprazole on the pharmacokinetics of escitalopram in healthy subjects. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2005; 60(3): 287–290.Google Scholar
26. Celexa® (citalopram hydrobrominde) [package insert]. Irvine, CA: Allergan USA, Inc; 2016.Google Scholar
27. Spina, E, Pisani, F, de Leon, J. Clinically significant pharmacokinetic drug interactions of antiepileptic drugs with new antidepressants and new antipsychotics. Pharmacol Res. 2016; 106: 72–86.Google Scholar
28. Ouellet, D, Hsu, A, Qian, J, et al. Effect of fluoxetine on pharmacokinetics of ritonavir. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998; 42(12): 3107–3112.Google Scholar
29. Rescriptor® (delavirdine mesylate) [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC: Pfizer Pharmaceuticals LLC; 2012.Google Scholar
30. de Maat, MM, Huitema, AD, Mulder, JW, et al. Drug interaction of fluvoxamine and fluoxetine with nevirapine in HIV-1-infected individuals. Clin Drug Investig. 2003; 23(10): 629–637.Google Scholar
31. DeSilva, KE, Le Flore, DB, Marston, BJ, et al. Serotonin syndrome in HIV-infected individuals receiving antiretroviral therapy and fluoxetine. AIDS. 2001; 15(10): 1281–1285.Google Scholar
32. Bertz, R, Foit, C, Chiu, Y-L, et al. Multiple-dose Kaletra (lopinavir/ritonavir) does not affect the pharmacokinetics of the CYP2D6 probe, desipramine (abstract 433-W). Abstract presented at: 9th Conferences on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections; February 24–28, 2002; Seattle, WA.Google Scholar
33. Grassi, B, Gambini, O, Scarone, S. Notes on the use of fluvoxamine as treatment of depression in HIV-1-infected subjects. Pharmacopsychiatry. 1995; 28(3): 93–94.Google Scholar
34. Jann, MW, Spratlin, V, Momary, K, et al. Lack of a pharmacokinetic drug–drug interaction with venlafaxine extended-release/indinavir and desvenlafaxine extended-release/indinavir. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2012; 68(5): 715–721.Google Scholar
35. Levin, GM, Nelson, LA, DeVane, CL, et al. A pharmacokinetic drug–drug interaction study of venlafaxine and indinavir. Psychopharmacol Bull. 2001; 35(2): 62–71.Google Scholar
36. Bachman, CJ, Beauleiu-Abdelahad, D, Ganey, NJ, Mullan, MJ, Levin, GM. Induction of drug efflux protein expression by venlafaxine but not desvenlafaxine. Biopharm Drug Dispos. 2011; 32(4): 233–234.Google Scholar
37. Skinner, MH, Kuan, HY, Pan, A, et al. Duloxetine is both an inhibitor and a substrate of cytochrome P4502D6 in healthy volunteers. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2003; 73(3): 170–177.Google Scholar
38. Cymbalta® (duloxetine hydrochloride) [package insert]. Indianapolis, IN: Eli Lilly and Company; 2008.Google Scholar
39. Aung, GL, O’Brien, JG, Tien, PG, et al. Increased aripiprazole concentrations in an HIV-positive male concurrently taking duloxetine, darunavir, and ritonavir. Ann Pharmacother. 2010; 44(11): 1850–1854.Google Scholar
40. Zalma, A, von Moltke, LL, Granda, BW, et al. In vitro metabolism of trazodone by CYP3A: inhibition by ketoconazole and human immunodeficiency viral protease inhibitors. Biol Psychiatry. 2000; 47(7): 655–661.Google Scholar
41. Greenblatt, DJ, von Moltke, LL, Harmatz, JS, et al. Short-term exposure to low-dose ritonavir impairs clearance and enhances adverse effects of trazodone. J Clin Pharmacol. 2003; 43(4): 414–422.Google Scholar
42. Voican, CS, Corruble, E, Naveau, S, et al. Antidepressant-induced liver injury: a review for clinicians. Am J Psychiatry. 2014; 171(4): 404–415.Google Scholar
43. Elliott, AJ, Russo, J, Bergam, K, et al. Antidepressant efficacy in HIV-seropositive outpatients with major depressive disorder: an open trial of nefazodone. J Clin Psychiatry. 1999; 60(4): 226–231.Google Scholar
44. Elliott, AJ, Roy-Byrne, PP. Mirtazapine for depression in patients with human immunodeficiency virus. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2000; 20(2): 265–267.Google Scholar
45. Wellbutrin (bupropion hydrochloride) [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC: GlaxoSmithKline; 2017.Google Scholar
46. Hogeland, GW, Swindells, S, McNabb, JC, et al. Lopinavir/ritonavir reduces bupropion plasma concentrations in healthy subjects. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2007; 81(1): 69–75.Google Scholar
47. Robertson, SM, Maldarelli, F, Natarajan, V, et al. Efavirenz induces CYP2B6-mediated hydroxylation of bupropion in healthy subjects. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008; 49(5): 513–519.Google Scholar
48. Kharasch, ED, Mitchell, D, Coles, R, et al. Rapid clinical induction of hepatic cytochrome P4502B6 activity by ritonavir. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008; 52(5): 1663–1669.Google Scholar
49. Park, J, Vousden, M, Brittain, C, et al. Dose-related reduction in bupropion plasma concentrations by ritonavir. J Clin Pharmacol. 2010; 50(10): 1180–1187.Google Scholar
50. Currier, MB, Molina, G, Kato, M. A prospective trial of sustained-release bupropion for depression in HIV-seropositive and AIDS patients. Psychosomatics. 2003; 44(2): 120–125.Google Scholar
51. American Psychiatric Association (APA). Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with major depressive disorder. 3rd ed. Am J Psychiatry. 2010; 167: 1–152.Google Scholar
52. Fernandez, F. Neuropsychiatric aspects of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2002; 4(3): 228–231.Google Scholar
53. Gillman, PK. Tricyclic antidepressant pharmacology and therapeutic drug interactions updated. Br J Pharmacol. 2007; 151(6): 737–748.Google Scholar
54. Norvir® [package insert]. North Chicago, IL: AbbVie Inc.; June 2017.Google Scholar
55. Bertz, RJ, Cao, G, Cavanaugh, JH, et al. Effect of ritonavir on the pharmacokinetics of desipramine. Abstract presented at: Proceedings of the International Conference on AIDS; July 1996; Vancouver, BC.Google Scholar
56. Usach, I, Melis, V, Gandía, P, et al. Pharmacokinetic interaction between nevirapine and nortriptyline in rats: inhibition of nevirapine metabolism by nortriptyline. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014; 58(12): 7041–7048.Google Scholar
57. Pieper, AA, Treisman, GJ. Drug treatment of depression in HIV-positive patients: safety considerations. Drug Saf. 2005; 28(9): 753–762.Google Scholar
58. Maldonado, JL, Fernandez, F, Levy, JK Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. In: Lauterbach E, ed. Psychiatric Management of Neurologic Disease. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 2000: 271–295.Google Scholar
59. Linde, K, Berner, MM, Kriston, L. St John’s wort for major depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008;(4): CD000448.Google Scholar
60. Knuppel, L, Linde, K. Adverse effects of St John’s wort: a systematic review. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004; 65(11): 1470–1479.Google Scholar
61. Izzo, AA, Ernst, E. Interactions between herbal medicines and prescribed drugs: an updated systematic review. Drugs. 2009; 69(13): 1777–1798.Google Scholar
62. de Maat, MM, Hoetelmans, RM, Mathôt, RA, et al. Drug interaction between St John’s wort and nevirapine. AIDS. 2001; 15(3): 420–421.Google Scholar
63. Piscitelli, SC, Burstein, AH, Chaitt, D, et al. Indinavir concentrations and St John’s wort. Lancet. 2000; 355(9263): 547–548.Google Scholar
64. Henderson, L, Yue, QY, Bergquist, C et al. St John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum): drug interactions and clinical outcomes. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2002; 54(4): 349–356.Google Scholar
65. Rosen, RC, Marin, H. Prevalence of antidepressant-associated erectile dysfunction. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003; 64(Suppl 10): 5–10.Google Scholar
66. Hart, TA, Mustanski, B, Ryan, DT, et al. Depression and sexual dysfunction among HIV-positive and HIV-negative men who have sex with men: mediation by use of antidepressants and recreational stimulants. Arch Sex Behav. 2015; 44(2): 399–409.Google Scholar
67. Elliott, AJ, Uldall, KK, Bergam, K, et al. Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of paroxetine versus imipramine in depressed HIV-positive outpatients. Am J Psychiatry. 1998; 155(3): 367–372.Google Scholar
68. Selzentry® (maraviroc) [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC: ViiV Healthcare; 2016.Google Scholar
69. Nittayananta, W, Chanowanna, N, Pruphetkaew, N, et al. Relationship between xerostomia and salivary flow rates in HIV-infected individuals. J Investig Clin Dent. 2013; 4(3): 164–171.Google Scholar
70. Younai, FS, Marcus, M, Freed, JR, et al. Self-reported oral dryness and HIV disease in a national sample of patients receiving medical care. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2001; 92(6): 629–636.Google Scholar
71. Badowski, M, Pandit, N. Pharmacologic management of human immunodeficiency virus wasting syndrome. Pharmacotherapy. 2014; 34(8): 858–861.Google Scholar
72. Koethe, JR, Jenkins, CA, Lau, B, et al. Rising obesity prevalence and weight gain among adults starting antiretroviral therapy in the United States and Canada. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2016; 32(1): 50–58.Google Scholar
73. Jasiak, NM, Bostwick, JR. Risk of QT/QTc prolongation among newer non-SSRI antidepressants. Ann Pharmacother. 2014; 48(12): 1620–1628.Google Scholar
74. Invirase® (saquinavir) [package insert]. South San Francisco, CA: Mississauga, Genentech USA, Inc.; 2016.Google Scholar
75. Soliman, EZ, Lundgren, JD, Roediger, MP, et al. Boosted protease inhibitors and the electrocardiographic measures of QT and PR durations. AIDS. 2011; 25(3): 367–377.Google Scholar
76. Anson, BD, Weaver, GR, Ackerman, MJ, et al. Blockade of HERG channels by HIV protease inhibitors. Lancet. 2005; 365(9460): 682–686.Google Scholar
77. Edurant [package insert]. Titusville, NJ: Janssen Therapeutics; 2011.Google Scholar
78. Sustiva® [package insert]. Princeton, NJ: Bristol-Myers Squibb Company; October 2017.Google Scholar
79. Mollan, KR, Smurzynski, M, Eron, JJ, et al. Association between efavirenz as initial therapy for HIV-1 infection and increased risk for suicidal ideation or attempted or completed suicide: an analysis of trial data. Ann Intern Med. 2014; 161(1): 1–10.Google Scholar
80. Nkhoma, ET, Coumbis, J, Farr, AM, et al. No evidence of an association between efavirenz exposure and suicidality among HIV patients initiating antiretroviral therapy in a retrospective cohort study of real world data. Medicine (Baltimore). 2016; 95(3): e2480.Google Scholar
81. Breitbart, W, Rosenfeld, B, Kaim, M, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of psychostimulants for the treatment of fatigue in ambulatory patients with human immunodeficiency virus disease. Arch Intern Med. 2001; 161(3): 411–420.Google Scholar
82. Fernandez, F, Levy, JK, Sampley, HR, et al. Effects of methylphenidate in HIV-related depression: a comparative trial with desipramine. Int J Psychiatry Med. 1995; 25(1): 53–67.Google Scholar
83. Wagner, GJ, Rabkin, JG, Rabkin, R. Dextroamphetamine as a treatment for depression and low energy in AIDS patients: a pilot study. J Psychosom Res. 1997; 42(4): 407–411.Google Scholar
84. Wagner, GJ, Rabkin, R. Effects of dextroamphetamine on depression and fatigue in men with HIV: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2000; 61(6): 436–440.Google Scholar
85. Hinkin, CH, Castellon, SA, Hardy, DJ, Farinpour, R, Newton, T, Singer, E. Methylphenidate improves HIV-1-associated cognitive slowing. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2001; 13(2): 248–254.Google Scholar
86. Scharko, AM. DSM psychiatric disorders in the context of pediatric HIV/AIDS. AIDS Care. 2006; 18(5): 441–445.Google Scholar
87. Zeegers, I, Rabie, H, Swanevelder, S, et al. Attention deficit hyperactivity and oppositional defiance disorder in HIV-infected South African children. J Trop Pediatr. 2010; 56(2): 97–102.Google Scholar
88. Dopheide, JA, Pliszka, SR. Attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder: an update. Pharmacotherapy. 2009; 29(6): 656–679.Google Scholar
89. Koutsilieri, E, Riederer, P, du Plessis, S, et al. A short review on the relation between the dopamine transporter 10/10-repeat allele and ADHD: implications for HIV infection. Atten Defic Hyperact Disord. 2014; 6(3): 203–209.Google Scholar
90. Landino, J, Buckley, J, Roy, JM, et al. Guidance of pharmacotherapy in a complex psychiatric case by CYP450 DNA typing. J Am Acad Nurse Pract. 2011; 23(9): 459–463.Google Scholar
91. Markowitz, JS, Straughn, AB, Patrick, KS. Advances in the pharmacotherapy of attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder: focus on methylphenidate formulations. Pharmacotherapy. 2003; 23(10): 1281–1299.Google Scholar
92. Domnitei, D, Madaan, V. New and extended-action treatments in the management of ADHD: a critical appraisal of lisdexamfetamine in adults and children. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2010; 6: 273–279.Google Scholar
93. Krishnan, S, Moncrief, S. An evaluation of the cytochrome p450 inhibition potential of lisdexamfetamine in human liver microsomes. Drug Metab Dispos. 2007; 35(1): 180–184.Google Scholar
94. Cortese, S, Holtmann, M, Banaschewski, T, et al. Practitioner review: current best practice in the management of adverse events during treatment with ADHD medications in children and adolescents. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2013; 54(3): 227–246.Google Scholar
95. Hennissen, L, Bakker, MJ, Banaschewski, T, et al. Cardiovascular effects of stimulant and non-stimulant medication for children and adolescents with ADHD: a systematic review and meta-analysis of trials of methylphenidate, amphetamines and atomoxetine. CNS Drugs. 2017; 31(3): 199–215.Google Scholar
96. Awudu, GA, Besag, FM. Cardiovascular effects of methylphenidate, amphetamines and atomoxetine in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: an update. Drug Saf. 2014; 37(9): 661–676.Google Scholar
97. US Food and Drug Administration. Safety report updates. Retrieved December 1, 2017. https://www.fda.gov/scienceresearch/specialtopics/pediatrictherapeuticsresearch/ucm123229.htmGoogle Scholar
98. Burkholder, GA, Tamhane, AR, Salinas, JL, et al. Underutilization of aspirin for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease among HIV-infected patients. Clin Infec Dis. 2012; 55(11): 1550–1557.Google Scholar
99. Ribaudo, HJ, Benson, CA, Zheng, Y, et al. No risk of myocardial infarction associated with initial antiretroviral treatment containing abacavir: short and long-term results from ACTG A5001/ALLRT. Clin Infect Dis. 2011; 52(7): 929–940.Google Scholar
100. Elion, RA, Althoff, KN, Zhang, J, et al. Recent abacavir use increases risk of type 1 and type 2 myocardial infarctions among adults with HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2018; 78(1): 62–72.Google Scholar
101. Chow, D, Shikuma, C, Ritchings, C, et al. Atazanavir and cardiovascular risk among human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: a systematic review. Infect Dis Ther. 2016; 5(4): 473–489.Google Scholar
102. LaFleur, J, Bress, AP, Rosenblatt, L, et al. Cardiovascular outcomes among HIV-infected veterans receiving atazanavir. AIDS. 2017; 31(15): 2095–2106.Google Scholar
103. Wolraich, ML, Doffing, ML. Pharmacokinetic considerations in the treatment of ADHD with methylphenidate. CNS Drugs. 2004; 18(4): 243–250.Google Scholar
104. Helleberg, M, Pedersen, MG, Pedersen, CB, et al. Associations between HIV and schizophrenia and their effect on HIV treatment outcomes: a nationwide population-based cohort study in Denmark. Lancet HIV. 2015; 2(8): e344–350.Google Scholar
105. Hughes, E, Bassi, S, Gilbody, S, et al. Prevalence of HIV, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C in people with severe mental illness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry. 2016; 3(1): 40–48.Google Scholar
106. Hill, L, Lee, KC. Pharmacotherapy considerations in patients with HIV and psychiatric disorders: focus on antidepressants and antipsychotics. Ann Pharmacother. 2013; 47(1): 75–89.Google Scholar
107. Abilify [package insert]. Rockville, MD: Otsuka America Pharmaceutical, Inc.; 2014.Google Scholar
108. Tybost® [package insert]. Foster City, CA: Gilead Sciences, Inc; August 2017.Google Scholar
109. Hahn, M, Roll, SC. Dosing recommendations of aripiprazole depot with strong cytochrome P450 3A4 inhibitors: a relapse risk. Drug Saf Case Rep. 2016; 3(1): 5.Google Scholar
110. Jacobs, BS, Colbers, AP, Velthoven-Graafland, K, et al. Effect of fosamprenavir/ritonavir on the pharmacokinetics of single-dose olanzapine in healthy volunteers. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2014; 44(2): 173–177.Google Scholar
111. van der Lee, MJ, Dawood, L, ter Hofstede, HJ, et al. Lopinavir/ritonavir reduces lamotrigine plasma concentrations in healthy subjects. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2006; 80(2): 159–168.Google Scholar
112. Yeh, RF, Gaver, VE, Patterson, KB, et al. Lopinavir/ritonavir induces the hepatic activity of cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP1A2 but inhibits the hepatic and intestinal activity of CYP3A as measured by a phenotyping drug cocktail in healthy volunteers. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006; 42(1): 52–60.Google Scholar
113. Penzak, SR, Hon, YY, Lawhorn, WD, et al. Influence of ritonavir on olanzapine pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2002; 22(4): 366–370.Google Scholar
114. Hantson, P, Di Fazio, V, Wallemacq, P. Toxicokinetic interaction between quetiapine and antiretroviral therapy following quetiapine overdose. Drug Metab Lett. 2010; 4(1): 7–8.Google Scholar
115. Pollak, PT, Zbuk, K. Quetiapine fumarate overdose: clinical and pharmacokinetic lessons from extreme conditions. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2000; 68(1): 92–97.Google Scholar
116. Pollack, TM, McCoy, C, Stead, W. Clinically significant adverse events from a drug interaction between quetiapine and atazanavir-ritonavir in two patients. Pharmacotherapy. 2009; 29(11): 1386–1391.Google Scholar
117. Geraci, MJ, McCoy, SL, Crum, PM, et al. Antipsychotic-induced priapism in an HIV patient: a cytochrome P450-mediated drug interaction. Int J Emerg Med. 2010; 3(2): 81–84.Google Scholar
118. Kelly, DV, Beique, LC, Bowmer, MI. Extrapyramidal symptoms with ritonavir/indinavir plus risperidone. Ann Pharmacother. 2002; 36(5): 827–830.Google Scholar
119. Lee, SI, Klesmer, J, Hirsch, BE. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome associated with use of risperidone, ritonavir, and indinavir: a case report. Psychosomatics. 2000; 41(5): 453–454.Google Scholar
120. Jover, F, Cuadrado, JM, Andreu, L, et al. Reversible coma caused by risperidone-ritonavir interaction. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2002; 25(5): 251–253.Google Scholar
121. Gonzalez, LS, Kothari, K, Kasle, DA. Three cases of late onset angioedema in nursing home human immunodeficiency virus patients on ritonavir and risperidone. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2016; 36(1): 95–97.Google Scholar
122. Latuda [package insert]. Marlborough, MA: Sunovion Pharmaceuticals, Inc.; 2017.Google Scholar
123. Reyataz® [package insert]. Princeton, NJ: Bristol-Myers Squibb; October 2017.Google Scholar
124. Naccarato, M, Hall, E, Wai, A, et al. A case of a probable drug interaction between lurasidone and atazanavir-based antiretroviral therapy. Antivir Ther. 2016; 21(8): 735–738.Google Scholar
125. Vergara-Rodriguez, P, Vibhakar, S, Watts, J. Metabolic syndrome and associated cardiovascular risk factors in the treatment of persons with human immunodeficiency virus and severe mental illness. Pharmacol Ther. 2009; 124(3): 269–278.Google Scholar
126. Safrin, S, Grunfeld, C. Fat distribution and metabolic changes in patients with HIV infection. AIDS. 1999; 13(18): 2493–2505.Google Scholar
127. Aberg, JA, Tebas, P, Overton, ET, et al. Metabolic effects of darunavir/ritonavir versus atazanavir/ritonavir in treatment-naive, HIV type 1-infected subjects over 48 weeks. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2012; 28(10): 1184–1195.Google Scholar
128. Molina, JM, Andrade-Villanueva, J, Echevarria, J, et al. Once-daily atazanavir/ritonavir compared with twice-daily lopinavir/ritonavir, each in combination with tenofovir and emtricitabine, for management of antiretroviral-naive HIV-1-infected patients: 96-week efficacy and safety results of the CASTLE study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010; 53(3): 323–332.Google Scholar
129. Ferrara, M, Umlauf, A, Sanders, C, et al. The concomitant use of second-generation antipsychotics and long-term antiretroviral therapy may be associated with increased cardiovascular risk. Psychiatry Res. 2014; 218(1–2): 201–208.Google Scholar
130. Nejad, SH, Gandhi, RT, Freudenreich, O. Clozapine use in HIV-infected schizophrenia patients: a case-based discussion and review. Psychosomatics. 2009; 50(6): 626–632.Google Scholar
131. Volberding, PA, Lagakos, SW, Koch, MA, et al. Zidovudine in asymptomatic human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1990; 322(14): 941–949.Google Scholar
132. Gerken, AT, McGahee, S, Keuroghlian, AS, et al. Consideration of clozapine and gender-affirming medical care for an HIV-positive person with schizophrenia and fluctuating gender identity. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2016; 24(6): 406–415.Google Scholar
133. Abers, MS, Shandera, WX, Kass, JS. Neurological and psychiatric adverse effects of antiretroviral drugs. CNS Drugs. 2014; 28(2): 131–145.Google Scholar
134. Arendt, G, de Nocker, D, von Giesen, HJ, et al. Neuropsychiatric side effects of efavirenz therapy. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2007; 6(2): 147–154.Google Scholar
135. de la Garza, CL, Paoletti-Duarte, S, Garcia-Martin, C, et al. Efavirenz-induced psychosis. AIDS. 2001; 15(14): 1911–1912.Google Scholar
136. Peyriere, H, Mauboussin, JM, Rouanet, I, et al. Management of sudden psychiatric disorders related to efavirenz. AIDS. 2001; 15(10): 1323–1324.Google Scholar
137. Wise, ME, Mistry, K, Reid, S. Drug points: neuropsychiatric complications of nevirapine treatment. BMJ. 2002; 324(7342): 879.Google Scholar
138. Nelson, M, Stellbrink, HJ, Podzamczer, D, et al. A comparison of neuropsychiatric adverse events during 12 weeks of treatment with etravirine and efavirenz in a treatment-naive, HIV-1-infected population. AIDS. 2011; 25(3): 335–340.Google Scholar
139. Miyamoto, S, Duncan, GE, Marx, CE, et al. Treatments for schizophrenia: a critical review of pharmacology and mechanisms of action of antipsychotic drugs. Mol Psychiatry. 2005; 10(1): 79–104.Google Scholar
140. Brogan, K, Lux, J. Management of common psychiatric conditions in the HIV-positive population. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2009; 6(2): 108–115.Google Scholar
141. Sewell, MC, Goggin, KJ, Rabkin, JG, et al. Anxiety syndromes and symptoms among men with AIDS: a longitudinal controlled study. Psychosomatics. 2000; 41(4): 294–300.Google Scholar
142. Campos, LN, Guimaraes, MD, Remien, RH. Anxiety and depression symptoms as risk factors for non-adherence to antiretroviral therapy in Brazil. AIDS Behav. 2010; 14(2): 289–299.Google Scholar
143. Buspar [package insert]. Princeton, NJ: Bristol-Myers Squibb Company; 2010.Google Scholar
144. Clay, PG, Adams, MM. Pseudo-parkinson disease secondary to ritonavir-buspirone interaction. Ann Pharmacother. 2003; 37(2): 202–205.Google Scholar
145. Ieiri, I, Tsunemitsu, S, Maeda, K, et al. Mechanisms of pharmacokinetic enhancement between ritonavir and saquinavir; micro/small dosing tests using midazolam (CYP3A4), fexofenadine (p-glycoprotein), and pravastatin (OATP1B1) as probe drugs. J Clin Pharmacol. 2013; 53(6): 654–661.Google Scholar
146. Schmitt, C, Hofmann, C, Riek, M, et al. Effect of saquinavir-ritonavir on cytochrome P450 3A4 activity in healthy volunteers using midazolam as a probe. Pharmacotherapy. 2009; 29(10): 1175–1181.Google Scholar
147. Mathias, AA, German, P, Murray, BP, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of GS-9350: a novel pharmacokinetic enhancer without anti-HIV activity. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2010; 87(3): 322–329.Google Scholar
148. Kakuda, TN, Scholler-Gyure, M, Hoetelmans, RM. Pharmacokinetic interactions between etravirine and non-antiretroviral drugs. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2011; 50(1): 25–39.Google Scholar
149. von Moltke, LL, Greenblatt, DJ, Grassi, JM, et al. Protease inhibitors as inhibitors of human cytochromes P450: high risk associated with ritonavir. J Clin Pharmacol. 1998; 38(2): 106–111.Google Scholar
150. Greenblatt, DJ, von Moltke, LL, Daily, JP, et al. Extensive impairment of triazolam and alprazolam clearance by short-term low-dose ritonavir: the clinical dilemma of concurrent inhibition and induction. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1999; 19(4): 293–296.Google Scholar
151. Frye, R, Bertz, R, Granneman, GR, et al. Effect of ritonavir on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of alprazolam. Abstract presented at: Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; 1997; Toronto, Canada.Google Scholar
152. de Sousa Gurgel, W, da Silva Carneiro, AH, Barreto Rebouças, D, et al. Prevalence of bipolar disorder in a HIV-infected outpatient population. AIDS Care. 2013; 25(12): 1499–1503.Google Scholar
153. Hunt, GE, Malhi, GS, Cleary, M, et al. Comorbidity of bipolar and substance use disorders in national surveys of general populations, 1990-2015: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Affect Disord. 2016; 206: 321–330.Google Scholar
154. Halman, MH, Worth, JL, Sanders, KM, et al. Anticonvulsant use in the treatment of manic syndromes in patients with HIV-1 infection. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1993; 5(4): 430–434.Google Scholar
155. Tegretol® [package insert]. East Honover, NJ: Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation; April 2017.Google Scholar
156. Bates, DE, Herman, RJ. Carbamazepine toxicity induced by lopinavir/ritonavir and nelfinavir. Ann Pharmacother. 2006; 40(6): 1190–1195.Google Scholar
157. Burman, W, Orr, L. Carbamazepine toxicity after starting combination antiretroviral therapy including ritonavir and efavirenz. AIDS. 2000; 14(17): 2793–2794.Google Scholar
158. Garcia, AB, Ibarra, AL, Etessam, JP, et al. Protease inhibitor-induced carbamazepine toxicity. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2000; 23(4): 216–218.Google Scholar
159. Kato, Y, Fujii, T, Mizoguchi, N, et al. Potential interaction between ritonavir and carbamazepine. Pharmacotherapy. 2000; 20(7): 851–854.Google Scholar
160. Mateu-de Antonio, J, Grau, S, Gimeno-Bayón, JL, et al. Ritonavir-induced carbamazepine toxicity. Ann Pharmacother. 2001; 35(1): 125–126.Google Scholar
161. Hugen, PW, Burger, DM, Brinkman, K, et al. Carbamazepine–indinavir interaction causes antiretroviral therapy failure. Ann Pharmacother. 2000; 34(4): 465–470.Google Scholar
162. Song, I, Weller, S, Patel, J, et al. Effect of carbamazepine on dolutegravir pharmacokinetics and dosing recommendation. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2016; 72(6): 665–670.Google Scholar
163. Ji, P, Damle, B, Xie, J, et al. Pharmacokinetic interaction between efavirenz and carbamazepine after multiple-dose administration in healthy subjects. J Clin Pharmacol. 2008; 48(8): 948–956.Google Scholar
164. Baranyai, D, Muro, E, Gödtel-Armbrust, U, et al. Reduction of nevirapine-driven HIV mutations by carbamazepine is modulated by CYP3A activity. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2014; 69(7): 1933–1937.Google Scholar
165. Muro, EP, Fillekes, Q, Kisanga, ER, et al. Intrapartum single-dose carbamazepine reduces nevirapine levels faster and may decrease resistance after a single dose of nevirapine for perinatal HIV prevention. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012; 59(3): 266–273.Google Scholar
166. Viramune® [package insert]. Ridgefield, CT: Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.; March 2017.Google Scholar
167. Cressey, TR, Jourdain, G, Lallemant, MJ, et al. Persistence of nevirapine exposure during the postpartum period after intrapartum single-dose nevirapine in addition to zidovudine prophylaxis for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005; 38(3): 283–288.Google Scholar
168. Guay, LA, Musoke, P, Fleming, T, et al. Intrapartum and neonatal single-dose nevirapine compared with zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: HIVNET 012 randomised trial. Lancet. 1999; 354(9181): 795–802.Google Scholar
169. Jackson, JB, Musoke, P, Fleming, T, et al. Intrapartum and neonatal single-dose nevirapine compared with zidovudine for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV-1 in Kampala, Uganda: 18-month follow-up of the HIVNET 012 randomised trial. Lancet. 2003; 362(9387): 859–868.Google Scholar
170. Muro, E, Droste, JA, Hofstede, HT, et al. Nevirapine plasma concentrations are still detectable after more than 2 weeks in the majority of women receiving single-dose nevirapine: implications for intervention studies. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005; 39(4): 419–421.Google Scholar
171. Akula, SK, Rege, AB, Dreisbach, AW, et al. Valproic acid increases cerebrospinal fluid zidovudine levels in a patient with AIDS. Am J Med Sci. 1997; 313(4): 244–246.Google Scholar
172. Antoniou, T, Gough, K, Yoong, D. Severe anemia secondary to a probable drug interaction between zidovudine and valproic acid. Clin Infect Dis. 2004; 38(5): e38–40.Google Scholar
173. Lertora, JJ, Rege, AB, Greenspan, DL, et al. Pharmacokinetic interaction between zidovudine and valproic acid in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1994; 56(3): 272–278.Google Scholar
174. Birbeck, GL, French, JA, Perucca, E, et al. Antiepileptic drug selection for people with HIV/AIDS: evidence-based guidelines from the ILAE and AAN. Epilepsia. 2012; 53(1): 207–214.Google Scholar
175. DiCenzo, R, Peterson, D, Cruttenden, K, et al. Effects of valproic acid coadministration on plasma efavirenz and lopinavir concentrations in human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004; 48(11): 4328–4331.Google Scholar
176. Saraga, M, Preisig, M, Zullino, DF. Reduced valproate plasma levels possible after introduction of efavirenz in a bipolar patient. Bipolar Disord. 2006; 8(4): 415–417.Google Scholar
177. Cozza, KL, Swanton, EJ, Humphreys, CW. Hepatotoxicity with combination of valproic acid, ritonavir, and nevirapine: a case report. Psychosomatics. 2000; 41(5): 452–453 Google Scholar
178. DiCenzo, R, Peterson, DR, Cruttenden, K, et al. Effects of minocycline and valproic acid coadministration on atazanavir plasma concentrations in human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults receiving atazanavir-ritonavir. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008; 52(9): 3035–3039.Google Scholar
179. Sheehan, NL, Brouillette, MJ, Delisle, MS, et al. Possible interaction between lopinavir/ritonavir and valproic acid exacerbates bipolar disorder. Ann Pharmacother. 2006; 40(1): 147–150.Google Scholar
180. Burger, DM, Huisman, A, Van Ewijk, N, et al. The effect of atazanavir and atazanavir/ritonavir on UDP-glucuronosyltransferase using lamotrigine as a phenotypic probe. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2008; 84(6): 698–703.Google Scholar
181. Luther, J, Glesby, MJ. Dermatologic adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy: recognition and management. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2007; 8(4): 221–233.Google Scholar
182. Depakote® [package insert]. North Chicago, IL: AbbVie Inc.; October 2017.Google Scholar
183. Surgers, L, Lacombe, K. Hepatoxicity of new antiretrovirals: a systematic review. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol. 2013; 37(2): 126–133.Google Scholar
184. Badalov, N, Baradarian, R, Iswara, K, et al. Drug-induced acute pancreatitis: an evidence-based review. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2007; 5(6): 648–661.Google Scholar
185. Mockenhaupt, M. The current understanding of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2011; 7(6): 803–813.Google Scholar
186. Raymond, GS, Lori, ES, Neil, HS. Lamotrigine-induced severe cutaneous adverse reactions. Epilepsia. 1998; 39(Supp7): S22–S26.Google Scholar
187. Lithobid® [package insert]. Baudette, MN: Ani Pharmaceuticals, Inc.; May 2016.Google Scholar
188. Anastasi, JK, Capili, B. Nausea and vomiting in HIV/AIDS. Gastroenterol Nurs. 2011; 34(1): 15–24.Google Scholar
189. Rabeneck, L, Crane, MM, Risser, JM, et al. A simple clinical staging system that predicts progression to AIDS using CD4 count, oral thrush, and night sweats. J Gen Intern Med. 1993; 8(1): 5–9.Google Scholar
190. Retrovir® [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC: GlaxoSmithKline; May 2012.Google Scholar
191. Hernández, DE, Pérez, JR, Wilder, J, et al. Kaposi sarcoma associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Int J Dermatol. 1991; 30(2): 109–113.Google Scholar
192. Roberts, DE, Berman, SM, Nakasato, S, et al. Effect of lithium carbonate on zidovudine-associated neutropenia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Med. 1988; 85(3): 428–431.Google Scholar
193. Berns, JS, Kasbekar, N. Highly active antiretroviral therapy and the kidney: an update on antiretroviral medications for nephrologists. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006; 1(1): 117–129.Google Scholar
194. Tivicay [package insert]. Research Triangle Park, NC: GlaxoSmithKline; November 2017.Google Scholar
195. Decloedt, EH, Lesosky, M, Maartens, G, et al. Renal safety of lithium in HIV-infected patients established on tenofovir disoproxil fumarate containing antiretroviral therapy: analysis from a randomized placebo-controlled trial. AIDS Res Ther. 2017; 14(1): 6.Google Scholar
196. Lansky, A, Brooks, JT, DiNenno, E, et al. Epidemiology of HIV in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010; 55(Suppl 2): S64–68.Google Scholar
197. Arnsten, JH, Demas, PA, Grant, RW, et al. Impact of active drug use on antiretroviral therapy adherence and viral suppression in HIV-infected drug users. J Gen Intern Med. 2002; 17(5): 377–381.Google Scholar
198. Bruce, RD, Altice, FL, Moody, DE, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions between buprenorphine/naloxone and once-daily lopinavir/ritonavir. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010; 54(5): 511–514.Google Scholar
199. Methadone [package insert]. Columbus, OH: Roxane Laboratories, Inc.; April 2015.Google Scholar
200. Kharasch, ED, Bedynek, PS, Hoffer, C, et al. Lack of indinavir effects on methadone disposition despite inhibition of hepatic and intestinal cytochrome P4503A (CYP3A). Anesthesiology. 2012; 116(2): 432–447.Google Scholar
201. Kharasch, ED, Bedynek, PS, Park, S, et al. Mechanism of ritonavir changes in methadone pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics: I. Evidence against CYP3A mediation of methadone clearance. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2008; 84(4): 497–505.Google Scholar
202. Kharasch, ED, Stubbert, K. Cytochrome P4503A does not mediate the interaction between methadone and ritonavir-lopinavir. Drug Metab Dispos. 2013; 41(12): 2166–2174.Google Scholar
203. Anderson, MS, Mabalot Luk, JA, Hanley, WD, et al. Effect of raltegravir on the pharmacokinetics of methadone. J Clin Pharmacol. 2010; 50(12): 1461–1466.Google Scholar
204. Song, I, Mark, S, Chen, S, et al. Dolutegravir does not affect methadone pharmacokinetics in opioid-dependent, HIV-seronegative subjects. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2013; 133(2): 781–784.Google Scholar
205. Bruce, RD, Winkle, P, Custodio, JM, et al. Investigation of the interactions between methadone and elvitegravir-cobicistat in subjects receiving chronic methadone maintenance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013; 57(12): 6154–6157.Google Scholar
206. Bañón, S, Moreno, A, Quereda, C, et al. A clinical and pharmacokinetic study of the combination of etravirine plus raltegravir in HIV patients with expanded intolerance or resistance. J Int AIDS Soc. 2014; 17(4 Suppl 3): 19804.Google Scholar
207. Geletko, SM, Erickson, AD. Decreased methadone effect after ritonavir initiation. Pharmacotherapy. 2000; 20(1): 93–94.Google Scholar
208. Gerber, JG, Rosenkranz, S, Segal, Y, et al. Effect of ritonavir/saquinavir on stereoselective pharmacokinetics of methadone: results of AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG) 401. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2001; 27(2): 153–160.Google Scholar
209. Jamois, C, Smith, P, Morrison, R, et al. Effect of saquinavir/ritonavir (1000/100 mg bid) on the pharmacokinetics of methadone in opiate-dependent HIV-negative patients on stable methadone maintenance therapy. Addict Biol. 2009; 14(3): 321–327.Google Scholar
210. Shelton, MJ, Cloen, D, DiFrancesco, R, et al. The effects of once-daily saquinavir/minidose ritonavir on the pharmacokinetics of methadone. J Clin Pharmacol. 2004; 44(3): 293–304.Google Scholar
211. López-Cortés, LF, Viciana, P, Ruiz-Valderas, R, et al. Efficacy, safety and pharmacokinetic of once-daily boosted saquinavir (1500/100 mg) together with 2 nucleos(t)ide reverse transcriptase inhibitors in real life: a multicentre prospective study. AIDS Res Ther. 2010; 7: 5.Google Scholar
212. Sekar, V, Tomaka, F, Lefebvre, E, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions between darunavir/ritonavir and opioid maintenance therapy using methadone or buprenorphine/naloxone. J Clin Pharmacol. 2011; 51(2): 271–278.Google Scholar
213. Cao, YJ, Smith, PF, Wire, MB, et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of methadone enantiomers after coadministration with fosamprenavir-ritonavir in opioid-dependent subjects. Pharmacotherapy. 2008; 28(7): 863–874.Google Scholar
214. Kharasch, ED, Hoffer, C, Whittington, D, et al. Methadone pharmacokinetics are independent of cytochrome P4503A (CYP3A) activity and gastrointestinal drug transport: insights from methadone interactions with ritonavir/indinavir. Anesthesiology. 2009; 110(3): 660–672.Google Scholar
215. Clarke, S, Mulcahy, F, Bergin, C, et al. Absence of opioid withdrawal symptoms in patients receiving methadone and the protease inhibitor lopinavir-ritonavir. Clin Infect Dis. 2002; 34(8): 1143–1145.Google Scholar
216. Stevens, RC, Rapaport, S, Maroldo-Connelly, L, et al. Lack of methadone dose alterations or withdrawal symptoms during therapy with lopinavir/ritonavir. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003; 33(5): 650–651.Google Scholar
217. McCance-Katz, EF, Rainey, PM, Friedland, G, et al. The protease inhibitor lopinavir-ritonavir may produce opiate withdrawal in methadone-maintained patients. Clin Infect Dis. 2003; 37(4): 476–482.Google Scholar
218. Lüthi, B, Huttner, A, Speck, RF, et al. Methadone-induced torsade de pointes after stopping lopinavir-ritonavir. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2007; 26(5): 367–369.Google Scholar
219. Hsyu, PH, Lillibridge, J, Daniels, E, et al. Pharmacokinetic interaction of nelfinavir and methadone in intravenous drug users. Biopharm Drug Dispos. 2006; 27(2): 61–68.Google Scholar
220. Kharasch, ED, Walker, A, Whittington, D, et al. Methadone metabolism and clearance are induced by nelfinavir despite inhibition of cytochrome P4503A (CYP3A) activity. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 101(3): 158–168.Google Scholar
221. McCance-Katz, EF, Rainey, PM, Smith, P, et al. Drug interactions between opioids and antiretroviral medications: interaction between methadone, LAAM, and nelfinavir. Am J Addict. 2004; 13(2): 163–180.Google Scholar
222. McCance-Katz, EF, Farber, S, Selwyn, PA, et al. Decrease in methadone levels with nelfinavir mesylate. Am J Psychiatry. 2000; 157(3): 481.Google Scholar
223. Friedland, G, Andrews, L, Schreibman, T, et al. Lack of an effect of atazanavir on steady-state pharmacokinetics of methadone in patients chronically treated for opiate addiction. AIDS. 2005; 19(15): 1635–1641.Google Scholar
224. Haberl, A, Moesch, M, Nisius, G, et al. Atazanavir plasma concentrations are impaired in HIV-1-infected adults simultaneously taking a methadone oral solution in a once-daily observed therapy setting. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2010; 66(4): 375–381.Google Scholar
225. Higgins, N, Zingman, BS, Slish, J, et al. Factors associated with altered pharmacokinetics in substance users and non-substance users receiving lopinavir and atazanavir. Am J Addict. 2007; 16(6): 488–494.Google Scholar
226. Altice, FL, Friedland, GH, Cooney, EL. Nevirapine induced opiate withdrawal among injection drug users with HIV infection receiving methadone. AIDS. 1999; 13(8): 957–962.Google Scholar
227. Arroyo, E, Valenzuela, B, Portilla, J, et al. Pharmacokinetics of methadone in human-immunodeficiency-virus-infected patients receiving nevirapine once daily. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 2007; 63(7): 669–675.Google Scholar
228. Boffito, M, Rossati, A, Reynolds, HE, et al. Undefined duration of opiate withdrawal induced by efavirenz in drug users with HIV infection and undergoing chronic methadone treatment. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2002; 18(5): 341–342.Google Scholar
229. Clarke, SM, Mulcahy, FM, Tjia, J, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions of nevirapine and methadone and guidelines for use of nevirapine to treat injection drug users. Clin Infect Dis. 2001; 33(9): 1595–1597.Google Scholar
230. Clarke, SM, Mulcahy, FM, Tjia, J, et al. The pharmacokinetics of methadone in HIV-positive patients receiving the non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor efavirenz. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2001; 51(3): 213–217.Google Scholar
231. Esteban, J, Pellín Mde, L, Gimeno, C, et al. Increase of R-/S-methadone enantiomer concentration ratio in serum of patients treated with either nevirapine or efavirenz. Drug Metab Lett. 2008; 2(4): 269–279.Google Scholar
232. Heelon, MW, Meade, LB. Methadone withdrawal when starting an antiretroviral regimen including nevirapine. Pharmacotherapy. 1999; 19(4): 471–472.Google Scholar
233. Manfredi, R, Calza, L, Chiodo, F. Prospective, open-label comparative study of liver toxicity in an unselected population of HIV-infected patients treated for the first time with efavirenz or nevirapine. HIV Clin Trials. 2005; 6(6): 302–311.Google Scholar
234. Marzolini, C, Troillet, N, Telenti, A, et al. Efavirenz decreases methadone blood concentrations. AIDS. 2000; 14(9): 1291–1292.Google Scholar
235. Otero, MJ, Fuertes, A, Sánchez, R, et al. Nevirapine-induced withdrawal symptoms in HIV patients on methadone maintenance programme: an alert. AIDS. 1999; 13(8): 1004–1005.Google Scholar
236. Pelet, A, Favrat, B, Cavassini, M, et al. Usefulness of methadone plasma concentration measurement in patients receiving nevirapine or efavirenz. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2011; 37(4): 264–268.Google Scholar
237. Pinzani, V, Faucherre, V, Peyriere, H, et al. Methadone withdrawal symptoms with nevirapine and efavirenz. Ann Pharmacother. 2000; 34(3): 405–407.Google Scholar
238. Staszewski, S, Haberl, A, Gute, P, et al. Nevirapine/didanosine/lamivudine once daily in HIV-1-infected intravenous drug users. Antivir Ther. 1998; 3(Suppl 4): 55–56.Google Scholar
239. Stocker, H, Kruse, G, Kreckel, P, et al. Nevirapine significantly reduces the levels of racemic methadone and (R)-methadone in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004; 48(11): 4148–4153.Google Scholar
240. Schöller-Gyüre, M, van den Brink, W, Kakuda, TN, et al. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic study of the concomitant administration of methadone and TMC125 in HIV-negative volunteers. J Clin Pharmacol. 2008; 48(3): 322–329.Google Scholar
241. Crauwels, HM, van Heeswijk, RP, Vandevoorde, A, et al. The effect of rilpivirine on the pharmacokinetics of methadone in HIV-negative volunteers. J Clin Pharmacol. 2014; 54(2): 133–140.Google Scholar
242. Rainey, PM, Friedland, GH, Snidow, JW, et al. The pharmacokinetics of methadone following co-administration with a lamivudine/zidovudine combination tablet in opiate-dependent subjects. Am J Addict. 2002; 11(1): 66–74.Google Scholar
243. Smith, PF, Kearney, BP, Liaw, S, et al. Effect of tenofovir disoproxil fumarate on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of total, R-, and S-methadone. Pharmacotherapy. 2004; 24(8): 970–977.Google Scholar
244. Rainey, PM, Friedland, G, McCance-Katz, EF, et al. Interaction of methadone with didanosine and stavudine. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2000; 24(3): 241–248.Google Scholar
245. Burger, DM, Meenhorst, PL, ten Napel, CH, et al. Pharmacokinetic variability of zidovudine in HIV-infected individuals: subgroup analysis and drug interactions. AIDS. 1994; 8(12): 1683–1689.Google Scholar
246. McCance-Katz, EF, Rainey, PM, Jatlow, P, Friedland, G. Methadone effects on zidovudine disposition (AIDS Clinical Trials Group 262). J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1998; 18(5): 435–443.Google Scholar
247. Schwartz, EL, Brechbühl, AB, Kahl, P, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions of zidovudine and methadone in intravenous drug-using patients with HIV infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 1992; 5(6): 619–626.Google Scholar
248. Buprenorphine [package insert]. Columbus, OH: Roxane Laboratories, Inc.; February 2015.Google Scholar
249. Bruce, RD, Altice, FL, Moody, DE, et al. Pharmacokinetic interactions between buprenorphine/naloxone and tipranavir/ritonavir in HIV-negative subjects chronically receiving buprenorphine/naloxone. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2009; 105(3): 234–239.Google Scholar
250. Bruce, RD, Moody, DE, Fang, WB, et al. Tipranavir/ritonavir induction of buprenorphine glucuronide metabolism in HIV-negative subjects chronically receiving buprenorphine/naloxone. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2011; 37(4): 224–228.Google Scholar
251. McCance-Katz, EF, Moody, DE, Morse, GD, et al. Interaction between buprenorphine and atazanavir or atazanavir/ritonavir. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007; 91(2–3): 269–278.Google Scholar
252. McCance-Katz, EF, Moody, DE, Smith, PF, et al. Interactions between buprenorphine and antiretrovirals. II. The protease inhibitors nelfinavir, lopinavir/ritonavir, and ritonavir. Clin Infect Dis. 2006; 43(Suppl 4): S235–246.Google Scholar
253. Gruber, VA, Rainey, PM, Moody, DE. Interactions between buprenorphine and the protease inhibitors darunavir-ritonavir and fosamprenavir-ritonavir. Clin Infect Dis. 2012; 54(3): 414–423.Google Scholar
254. Berson, A, Fau, D, Fornacciari, R, et al. Mechanisms for experimental buprenorphine hepatotoxicity: major role of mitochondrial dysfunction versus metabolic activation. J Hepatol. 2001; 34(2): 261–269.Google Scholar
255. Peyrière, H, Tatem, L, Bories, C, Pageaux, GP, Blayac, JP, Larrey, D. Hepatitis after intravenous injection of sublingual buprenorphine in acute hepatitis C carriers: report of two cases of disappearance of viral replication after acute hepatitis. Ann Pharmacother. 2009; 43(5): 973–977.Google Scholar
256. Vergara-Rodriguez, P, Tozzi, MJ, Botsko, M, et al. Hepatic safety and lack of antiretroviral interactions with buprenorphine/naloxone in HIV-infected opioid-dependent patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011; 56(Suppl 1): S62–67.Google Scholar
257. Maremmani, I, Pacini, M, Cesaroni, C, et al. QTc interval prolongation in patients on long-term methadone maintenance therapy. Eur Addict Res. 2005; 11(1): 44–49.Google Scholar
258. Chinello, P, Lisena, FP, Angeletti, C, et al. Role of antiretroviral treatment in prolonging QTc interval in HIV-positive patients. J Infect. 2007; 54(6): 597–602.Google Scholar
259. Gallagher, DP, Kieran, J, Sheehan, G, et al. Ritonavir-boosted atazanavir, methadone, and ventricular tachycardia: 2 case reports. Clin Infect Dis. 2008; 47(3): e36–38.Google Scholar
260. Baker, JR, Best, AM, Pade, PA, et al. Effect of buprenorphine and antiretroviral agents on the QT interval in opioid-dependent patients. Ann Pharmacother. 2006; 40(3): 392–396.Google Scholar
261. Prosser, JM, Mills, A, Rhim, ES, et al. Torsade de pointes caused by polypharmacy and substance abuse in a patient with human immunodeficiency virus. Int J Emerg Med. 2008; 1(3): 217–220.Google Scholar
262. Rocco, A, Compare, D, Angrisani, D, et al. Alcoholic disease: liver and beyond. World J Gastroenterol. 2014; 20(40): 14652–14659.Google Scholar
263. Abrescia, N, D’Abbraccio, M, Figoni, M, et al. Hepatotoxicity of antiretroviral drugs. Curr Pharm Des. 2005; 11(28): 3697–3710.Google Scholar
264. Harris, J, Pillinger, M, Fromstein, D, et al. Risk factors for medication non-adherence in an HIV infected population in the Dominican Republic. AIDS Behav. 2011; 15(7): 1410–1415.Google Scholar
265. Antabuse® [package insert]. Bensalem, PA: Rising Pharmaceuticals, Inc.; August 2016.Google Scholar
266. Campral® [package insert]. St. Louis, MO: Forest Pharmaceuticals, Inc.; January 2012.Google Scholar
267. ReVia® [package insert]. Horsham, PA: Teva Pharmaceutical Industries; October 2013.Google Scholar
268. Vivitrol® [package insert]. Waltham, MA: Alkermes, Inc.; December 2015.Google Scholar
269. McCance-Katz, EF, Gruber, VA, Beatty, G, et al. Interaction of disulfiram with antiretroviral medications: efavirenz increases while atazanavir decreases disulfiram effect on enzymes of alcohol metabolism. Am J Addict. 2014; 23(2): 137–144.Google Scholar
270. McCance-Katz, EF, Rainey, PM, Friedland, G, et al. Effect of opioid dependence pharmacotherapies on zidovudine disposition. Am J Addict. 2001; 10(4): 296–307.Google Scholar
271. Cvetkovic, RS, Goa, KL. Lopinavir/ritonavir: a review of its use in the management of HIV infection. Drugs. 2003; 63(8): 769–802.Google Scholar
272. Kaletra® [package insert]. North Chicago, IL: AbbVie Inc.; 2017.Google Scholar
273. Núñez, M, Soriano, V. Hepatotoxicity of antiretrovirals: incidence, mechanisms and management. Drug Saf. 2005; 28(1): 53–66.Google Scholar
274. Koubar, SH, Estrella, MM, Warrier, R, et al. Rhabdomyolysis in an HIV cohort: epidemiology, causes and outcomes. BMC Nephrol. 2017; 18(1): 242.Google Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Goodlet et al. supplementary material

Online Appendix

Download Goodlet et al. supplementary material(File)
File 40.3 KB