Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-8bhkd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-14T22:23:29.279Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Overview of the treatment of binge eating disorder

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 November 2015

Susan L. McElroy ,
Anna I. Guerdjikova ,
Nicole Mori ,
Maura R. Munoz  and
Paul E. Keck Jr.
Susan L. McElroy*
Affiliation:
Linder Center of HOPE, Mason, Ohio, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
Anna I. Guerdjikova
Affiliation:
Linder Center of HOPE, Mason, Ohio, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
Nicole Mori
Affiliation:
Linder Center of HOPE, Mason, Ohio, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
Maura R. Munoz
Affiliation:
Linder Center of HOPE, Mason, Ohio, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
Paul E. Keck Jr.
Affiliation:
Linder Center of HOPE, Mason, Ohio, USA; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
*
*Address for correspondence: Dr. Susan L. McElroy, Lindner Center of HOPE, 4075 Old Western Row Road, Mason, OH 45040, USA. (Email: susan.mcelroy@uc.edu or susan.mcelroy@lindnercenter.org)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We performed a qualitative review of treatment studies of binge eating disorder (BED), focusing on randomized clinical trials (RCTs). Limited effectiveness has been demonstrated for self-help strategies, and substantial effectiveness has been shown for cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and interpersonal therapy (IPT). CBT and IPT may each be more effective than behavior weight loss therapy (BWLT) for reducing binge eating over the long term. The stimulant pro-drug lisdexamfetamine dimesylate (LDX) is the only drug approved by the FDA for the treatment of BED in adults based on 2 pivotal RCTs. Topiramate also decreases binge eating behavior, but its use is limited by its adverse event profile. Antidepressants may be modestly effective over the short term for reducing binge eating behavior and comorbid depressive symptoms, but are not associated with clinically significant weight loss. A RCT presented in abstract form suggests that intranasal naloxone may decrease time spent binge eating. There is no RCT of obesity surgery in BED, but many patients with BED seek and receive such surgery. While some studies suggest patients with BED and obesity do just as well as patients with obesity alone, other studies suggest that patients with BED have more post-operative complications, less weight loss, and more weight regain. This evidence suggests that patients with BED would benefit from receiving highly individualized treatment.

Keywords

Binge eatingpharmacotherapypsychotherapyreview
Type
Review Articles
Information
CNS Spectrums , Volume 20 , Special Issue 6: Binge Eating Disorder Differentiating from General Obesity , December 2015 , pp. 546 - 556
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.Google Scholar
2. Hudson, JI, Hiripi, E, Pope, HG Jr., et al. The prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biol Psychiatry. 2007; 61(3): 348–358.Google Scholar
3. Swanson, SA, Crow, SJ, Le Grange, D, et al. Prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in adolescents: results from the national comorbidity survey replication adolescent supplement. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2011; 68(7): 714–723.Google Scholar
4. Kessler, RC, Berglund, PA, Chiu, WT, et al. The prevalence and correlates of binge eating disorder in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. Biol Psychiatry. 2013; 73(9): 904–914.Google Scholar
5. Javaras, KN, Pope, HG, Lalonde, JK, et al. Co-occurrence of binge eating disorder with psychiatric and medical disorders. J Clin Psychiatry. 2008; 69(2): 266–273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6. Hudson, JI, Lalonde, JK, Coit, CE, et al. Longitudinal study of the diagnosis of components of the metabolic syndrome in individuals with binge eating disorder. Am J Clin Nutrition. 2010; 91(6): 1568–1573.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
7. Agh, T, Kovacs, G, Pawaskar, M, et al. Epidemiology, health-related quality of life and economic burden of binge eating disorder: a systematic literature review. Eat Weight Disord. 2015; 20(1): 1–12.Google Scholar
8. Trace, SE, Baker, JH, Penas-Lledo, E, et al. The genetics of eating disorders. Annu Rev Clin Psychol. 2013; 9: 589–620.Google Scholar
9. Schag, K, Schonleber, J, Teufel, M, et al. Food-related impulsivity in obesity and binge eating disorder—a systematic review. Obes Rev. 2013; 14(6): 477–495.Google Scholar
10. Michaelides, M, Thanos, PK, Volkow, ND, et al. Dopamine-related frontostriatal abnormalities in obesity and binge-eating disorder: emerging evidence for developmental psychopathology. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2012; 24(3): 211–218.Google Scholar
11. Brownley, KA, Berkman, ND, Sedway, JA, et al. Binge eating disorder treatment: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Int J Eat Disord. 2007; 40(4): 337–348.Google Scholar
12. Krysanski, VL, Ferraro, FR. Review of controlled psychotherapy treatment trials for binge eating disorder. Psychol Rep. 2008; 102(2): 339–368.Google Scholar
13. Hay, P. A systematic review of evidence for psychological treatments in eating disorders: 2005–2012. Int J Eat Disord. 2013; 46(5): 462–469.Google Scholar
14. Ramacciotti, CE, Coli, E, Marazziti, D, et al. Therapeutic options for binge eating disorder. Eat Weight Disord. 2013; 18(1): 3–9.Google Scholar
15. Iacovino, JM, Gredysa, DM, Altman, M, et al. Psychological treatments for binge eating disorder. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2012; 14(4): 432–446.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
16. Sysko, R, Walsh, BT. A critical evaluation of the efficacy of self-help interventions for the treatment of bulimia nervosa and binge-eating disorder. Int J Eat Disord. 2008; 41(2): 97–112.Google Scholar
17. Beintner, I, Jacobi, C, Schmidt, UH. Participation and outcome in manualized self-help for bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder—a systematic review and metaregression analysis. Clin Psychol Rev. 2014; 34(2): 158–176.Google Scholar
18. Peterson, CB, Mitchell, JE, Crow, SJ, et al. The efficacy of self-help group treatment and therapist-led group treatment for binge eating disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2009; 166(12): 1347–1354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19. Striegel-Moore, RH, Wilson, GT, DeBar, L, et al. Cognitive behavioral guided self-help for the treatment of recurrent binge eating. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2010; 78(3): 312–321.Google Scholar
20. DeBar, LL, Striegel-Moore, RH, Wilson, GT, et al. Guided self-help treatment for recurrent binge eating: replication and extension. Psychiatr Serv. 2011; 62(4): 367–373.Google Scholar
21. Grilo, CM, White, MA, Gueorguieva, R, et al. Self-help for binge eating disorder in primary care: a randomized controlled trial with ethnically and racially diverse obese patients. Behav Res Ther. 2013; 51(12): 855–861.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
22. Dunn, EC, Neighbors, C, Larimer, ME. Motivational enhancement therapy and self-help treatment for binge eaters. Psychol Addict Behav. 2006; 20(1): 44–52.Google Scholar
23. Cassin, SE, von Ranson, KM, Heng, K, et al. Adapted motivational interviewing for women with binge eating disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Psychol Addict Behav. 2008; 22(3): 417–425.Google Scholar
24. Vella-Zarb, RA, Mills, JS, Westra, HA, et al. A randomized controlled trial of motivational interviewing + self-help versus psychoeducation + self-help for binge eating. Int J Eat Disord. 2015; 48(3): 328–332.Google Scholar
25. Barnes, RD, White, MA, Martino, S, et al. A randomized controlled trial comparing scalable weight loss treatments in primary care. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2014; 22(12): 2508–2516.Google Scholar
26. Katterman, SN, Kleinman, BM, Hood, MM, et al. Mindfulness meditation as an intervention for binge eating, emotional eating, and weight loss: a systematic review. Eat Behav. 2014; 15(2): 197–204.Google Scholar
27. O’Reilly, GA, Cook, L, Spruijt-Metz, D, et al. Mindfulness-based interventions for obesity-related eating behaviours: a literature review. Obes Rev. 2014; 15(6): 453–461.Google Scholar
28. Godfrey, KM, Gallo, LC, Afari, N. Mindfulness-based interventions for binge eating: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Behav Med. 2015; 38(2): 348–362.Google Scholar
29. Grilo, CM, Masheb, RM. A randomized controlled comparison of guided self-help cognitive behavioral therapy and behavioral weight loss for binge eating disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2005; 43(11): 1509–1525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
30. Munsch, S, Biedert, E, Meyer, A, et al. A randomized comparison of cognitive behavioral therapy and behavioral weight loss treatment for overweight individuals with binge eating disorder. Int J Eat Disord. 2007; 40(2): 102–113.Google Scholar
31. Wilson, GT, Wilfley, DE, Agras, WS, et al. Psychological treatments of binge eating disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2010; 67(1): 94–101.Google Scholar
32. Masheb, RM, Grilo, CM, Rolls, BJ. A randomized controlled trial for obesity and binge eating disorder: low-energy-density dietary counseling and cognitive-behavioral therapy. Behav Res Ther. 2011; 49(12): 821–829.Google Scholar
33. Grilo, CM, Masheb, RM, Wilson, GT, et al. Cognitive-behavioral therapy, behavioral weight loss, and sequential treatment for obese patients with binge-eating disorder: a randomized controlled trial. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2011; 79(5): 675–685.Google Scholar
34. Munsch, S, Meyer, AH, Biedert, E. Efficacy and predictors of long-term treatment success for cognitive-behavioral treatment and behavioral weight-loss-treatment in overweight individuals with binge eating disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2012; 50(12): 775–785.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
35. Pagoto, S, Bodenlos, JS, Kantor, L, et al. Association of major depression and binge eating disorder with weight loss in a clinical setting. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2007; 15(11): 2557–2559.Google Scholar
36. Gorin, AA, Niemeier, HM, Hogan, P, et al. Binge eating and weight loss outcomes in overweight and obese individuals with type 2 diabetes: results from the Look AHEAD trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2008; 65(12): 1447–1455.Google Scholar
37. Wilfley, DE, Welch, RR, Stein, RI, et al. A randomized comparison of group cognitive-behavioral therapy and group interpersonal psychotherapy for the treatment of overweight individuals with binge-eating disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002; 59(8): 713–721.Google Scholar
38. Devlin, MJ, Goldfein, JA, Petkova, E, et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy and fluoxetine as adjuncts to group behavioral therapy for binge eating disorder. Obes Res. 2005; 13(6): 1077–1088.Google Scholar
39. Ljotsson, B, Lundin, C, Mitsell, K, et al. Remote treatment of bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder: a randomized trial of Internet-assisted cognitive behavioural therapy. Behav Res Ther. 2007; 45(4): 649–661.Google Scholar
40. Schlup, B, Munsch, S, Meyer, AH, et al. The efficacy of a short version of a cognitive-behavioral treatment followed by booster sessions for binge eating disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2009; 47(7): 628–635.Google Scholar
41. Ricca, V, Castellini, G, Mannucci, E, et al. Comparison of individual and group cognitive behavioral therapy for binge eating disorder: a randomized, three-year follow-up study. Appetite. 2010; 55(3): 656–665.Google Scholar
42. Devlin, MJ, Goldfein, JA, Petkova, E, et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy and fluoxetine for binge eating disorder: two-year follow-up. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2007; 15(7): 1702–1709.Google Scholar
43. Hilbert, A, Bishop, ME, Stein, RI, et al. Long-term efficacy of psychological treatments for binge eating disorder. Br J Psychiatry. 2012; 200(3): 232–237.Google Scholar
44. Fischer, S, Meyer, AH, Dremmel, D, et al. Short-term cognitive-behavioral therapy for binge eating disorder: long-term efficacy and predictors of long-term treatment success. Behav Res Ther. 2014; 58: 36–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
45. Tanofsky-Kraff, M, Shomaker, LB, Wilfley, DE, et al. Targeted prevention of excess weight gain and eating disorders in high-risk adolescent girls: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2014; 100(4): 1010–1018.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
46. Debar, LL, Wilson, GT, Yarborough, BJ, et al. Cognitive behavioral treatment for recurrent binge eating in adolescent girls: a pilot trial. Cogn Behav Pract. 2013; 20(2): 147–161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
47. Grilo, CM, Masheb, RM, Wilson, GT. Efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy and fluoxetine for the treatment of binge eating disorder: a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled comparison. Biol Psychiatry. 2005; 57(3): 301–309.Google Scholar
48. Safer, DL, Robinson, AH, Jo, B. Outcome from a randomized controlled trial of group therapy for binge eating disorder: comparing dialectical behavior therapy adapted for binge eating to an active comparison group therapy. Behav Ther. 2010; 41(1): 106–120.Google Scholar
49. Klein, AS, Skinner, JB, Hawley, KM. Targeting binge eating through components of dialectical behavior therapy: preliminary outcomes for individually supported diary card self-monitoring versus group-based DBT. Psychotherapy. 2013; 50(4): 543–552.Google Scholar
50. Masson, PC, von Ranson, KM, Wallace, LM, et al. A randomized wait-list controlled pilot study of dialectical behaviour therapy guided self-help for binge eating disorder. Behav Res Ther. 2013; 51(11): 723–728.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
51. Gorin, AA, Le Grange, D, Stone, AA. Effectiveness of spouse involvement in cognitive behavioral therapy for binge eating disorder. Int J Eat Disord. 2003; 33(4): 421–433.Google Scholar
52. Hilbert, A, Tuschen-Caffier, B. Body image interventions in cognitive-behavioural therapy of binge-eating disorder: a component analysis. Behav Res Ther. 2004; 42(11): 1325–1339.Google Scholar
53. Robinson, A. Integrative response therapy for binge eating disorder. Cogn Behav Pract. 2013; 20(1): 93–105.Google Scholar
54. Tasca, GA, Ritchie, K, Demidenko, N, et al. Matching women with binge eating disorder to group treatment based on attachment anxiety: outcomes and moderating effects. Psychother Res. 2013; 23(3): 301–314.Google Scholar
55. Kelly, AC, Carter, JC. Self-compassion training for binge eating disorder: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Psychol Psychother. 2015; 88(3): 285–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
56. Alfonsson, S, Parling, T, Ghaderi, A. Group behavioral activation for patients with severe obesity and binge eating disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Behav Modif. 2015; 39(2): 270–294.Google Scholar
57. Vancampfort, D, Vanderlinden, J, De Hert, M, et al. A systematic review on physical therapy interventions for patients with binge eating disorder. Disabil Rehabil. 2013; 35(26): 2191–2196.Google Scholar
58. Aigner, M, Treasure, J, Kaye, W, et al. World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of eating disorders. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2011; 12(6): 400–443.Google Scholar
59. Flament, MF, Bissada, H, Spettigue, W. Evidence-based pharmacotherapy of eating disorders. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2012; 15(2): 189–207.Google Scholar
60. Marazziti, D, Corsi, M, Baroni, S, et al. Latest advancements in the pharmacological treatment of binge eating disorder. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci. 2012; 16(15): 2102–2107.Google ScholarPubMed
61. Mitchell, JE, Roerig, J, Steffen, K. Biological therapies for eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord. 2013; 46(5): 470–477.Google Scholar
62. Reas, DL, Grilo, CM. Current and emerging drug treatments for binge eating disorder. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs. 2014; 19(1): 99–142.Google Scholar
63. Brownley, KA, Peat, CM, La Via, M, et al. Pharmacological approaches to the management of binge eating disorder. Drugs. 2015; 75(1): 9–32.Google Scholar
64. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA expands uses of Vyvanse to treat binge-eating disorder. January 30, 2015; http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm432543.htm. Accessed April 14, 2015.Google Scholar
65. McElroy, SL, Hudson, J, Ferreira-Cornwell, MC, et al. Lisdexamfetamine dimesylate for adults with moderate to severe binge eating disorder: results of two pivotal phase 3 randomized controlled trials. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2015.Google Scholar
66. McElroy, SL, Hudson, JI, Mitchell, JE, et al. Efficacy and safety of lisdexamfetamine for treatment of adults with moderate to severe binge eating disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2015; 72(3): 235–246.Google Scholar
67. McElroy, SL, Guerdjikova, A, Kotwal, R, et al. Atomoxetine in the treatment of binge-eating disorder: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007; 68(3): 390–398.Google Scholar
68. McElroy, SL, Martens, BE, Mori, N, et al. Adjunctive lisdexamfetamine in bipolar depression: a preliminary randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2015; 30(1): 6–13.Google Scholar
69. Guerdjikova, AI, McElroy, SL, Winstanley, EL, et al. Duloxetine in the treatment of binge eating disorder with depressive disorders: a placebo-controlled trial. Int J Eat Disord. 2012; 45(2): 281–289.Google Scholar
70. White, MA, Grilo, CM. Bupropion for overweight women with binge-eating disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013; 74(4): 400–406.Google Scholar
71. Laederach-Hofmann, K, Graf, C, Horber, F, et al. Imipramine and diet counseling with psychological support in the treatment of obese binge eaters: a randomized, placebo-controlled double-blind study. Int J Eat Disord. 1999; 26(3): 231–244.Google Scholar
72. McElroy, SL, Arnold, LM, Shapira, NA, et al. Topiramate in the treatment of binge eating disorder associated with obesity: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Psychiatry. 2003; 160(2): 255–261.Google Scholar
73. McElroy, SL, Hudson, JI, Capece, JA, et al. Topiramate for the treatment of binge eating disorder associated with obesity: a placebo-controlled study. Biol Psychiatry. 2007; 61(9): 1039–1048.Google Scholar
74. Claudino, AM, de Oliveira, IR, Appolinario, JC, et al. Double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of topiramate plus cognitive-behavior therapy in binge-eating disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2007; 68(9): 1324–1332.Google Scholar
75. McElroy, SL, Shapira, NA, Arnold, LM, et al. Topiramate in the long-term treatment of binge-eating disorder associated with obesity. J Clin Psychiatry. 2004; 65(11): 1463–1469.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
76. Kushner, SF, Khan, A, Lane, R, et al. Topiramate monotherapy in the management of acute mania: results of four double-blind placebo-controlled trials. Bipolar Disord. 2006; 8(1): 15–27.Google Scholar
77. Guglielmo, R, Martinotti, G, Quatrale, M, et al. Topiramate in alcohol use disorders: review and update. CNS Drugs. 2015; 29(5): 383–395.Google Scholar
78. Guerdjikova, AI, McElroy, SL, Welge, JA, et al. Lamotrigine in the treatment of binge-eating disorder with obesity: a randomized, placebo-controlled monotherapy trial. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2009; 24(3): 150–158.Google Scholar
79. McElroy, SL, Kotwal, R, Guerdjikova, AI, et al. Zonisamide in the treatment of binge eating disorder with obesity: A randomized controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006; 67(12): 1897–1906.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
80. Stunkard, A, Berkowitz, R, Tanrikut, C, et al. D-fenfluramine treatment of binge eating disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1996; 153(11): 1455–1459.Google Scholar
81. Pataky, Z, Gasteyger, C, Ziegler, O, et al. Efficacy of rimonabant in obese patients with binge eating disorder. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 2013; 121(1): 20–26.Google ScholarPubMed
82. Appolinario, JC, Bacaltchuk, J, Sichieri, R, et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of sibutramine in the treatment of binge-eating disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2003; 60(11): 1109–1116.Google Scholar
83. Milano, W, Petrella, C, Casella, A, et al. Use of sibutramine, an inhibitor of the reuptake of serotonin and noradrenaline, in the treatment of binge eating disorder: a placebo-controlled study. Adv Ther. 2005; 22(1): 25–31.Google Scholar
84. Wilfley, DE, Crow, SJ, Hudson, JI, et al. Efficacy of sibutramine for the treatment of binge eating disorder: a randomized multicenter placebo-controlled double-blind study. Am J Psychiatry. 2008; 165(1): 51–58.Google Scholar
85. Grilo, CM, Masheb, RM, White, MA, et al. Treatment of binge eating disorder in racially and ethnically diverse obese patients in primary care: randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial of self-help and medication. Behav Res Ther. 2014; 58: 1–9.Google Scholar
86. Grilo, CM, Masheb, RM, Salant, SL. Cognitive behavioral therapy guided self-help and orlistat for the treatment of binge eating disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Biol Psychiatry. 2005; 57(10): 1193–1201.Google Scholar
87. Golay, A, Laurent-Jaccard, A, Habicht, F, et al. Effect of orlistat in obese patients with binge eating disorder. Obes Res. 2005; 13(10): 1701–1708.Google Scholar
88. Grilo, CM, White, MA. Orlistat with behavioral weight loss for obesity with versus without binge eating disorder: randomized placebo-controlled trial at a community mental health center serving educationally and economically disadvantaged Latino/as. Behav Res Ther. 2013; 51(3): 167–175.Google Scholar
89. McElroy, SL, Guerdjikova, AI, Kim, DD, et al. Naltrexone/bupropion combination therapy in overweight or obese patients with major depressive disorder: results of a pilot study. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2013; 15(3). DOI: 10.4088/PCC.12m01494.Google Scholar
90. Guerdjikova, AI, Fitch, A, McElroy, SL. Successful treatment of binge-eating disorder with combination phentermine/topiramate extended release. Prim Care Companion CNS Disord. 2015; 17(2). doi: 10.4088/PCC.14101708.Google Scholar
91. McElroy, SL, Guerdjikova, AI, Winstanley, EL, et al. Acamprosate in the treatment of binge eating disorder: a placebo-controlled trial. Int J Eat Disord. 2011; 44(1): 81–90.Google Scholar
92. Corwin, RL, Boan, J, Peters, KF, et al. Baclofen reduces binge eating in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Behav Pharmacol. 2012; 23(5–6): 616–625.Google Scholar
93. McElroy, SL, Guerdjikova, AI, Blom, TJ, et al. A placebo-controlled pilot study of the novel opioid receptor antagonist ALKS-33 in binge eating disorder. Int J Eat Disord. 2013; 46(3): 239–245.Google Scholar
94. Alho, H, Lahti, T, Appelberg, B, et al. Opioid antagonist naloxone nasal spray treatment for patients with binge eating disorder: a randomized controlled trial (Poster # NR4-29). Presented at American Psychiatric Association 166th Annual Meeting; May 18–22, 2013; San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
95. Brownley, KA, Von Holle, A, Hamer, RM, et al. A double-blind, randomized pilot trial of chromium picolinate for binge eating disorder: results of the Binge Eating and Chromium (BEACh) study. J Psychosom Res. 2013; 75(1): 36–42.Google Scholar
96. McElroy, SL, Guerdjikova, AI, Mori, N, et al. Armodafinil in binge eating disorder: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2015; 30(4): 209–215.Google Scholar
97. Brennan, BP, Roberts, JL, Fogarty, KV, et al. Memantine in the treatment of binge eating disorder: an open-label, prospective trial. Int J Eat Disord. 2008; 41(6): 520–526.Google Scholar
98. McElroy, SL, Guerdjikova, AI, Winstanley, EL, et al. Sodium oxybate in the treatment of binge eating disorder: an open-label, prospective study. Int J Eat Disord. 2011; 44(3): 262–268.Google Scholar
99. Meany, G, Conceicao, E, Mitchell, JE. Binge eating, binge eating disorder and loss of control eating: effects on weight outcomes after bariatric surgery. Eur Eat Disord Rev. 2014; 22(2): 87–91.Google Scholar
100. Wimmelmann, CL, Dela, F, Mortensen, EL. Psychological predictors of weight loss after bariatric surgery: a review of the recent research. Obes Res Clin Pract. 2014; 8(4): e299–e313.Google Scholar
101. Sheets, CS, Peat, CM, Berg, KC, et al. Post-operative psychosocial predictors of outcome in bariatric surgery. Obes Surg. 2015; 25(2): 330–345.Google Scholar
102. Brambilla, F, Samek, L, Company, M, et al. Multivariate therapeutic approach to binge-eating disorder: combined nutritional, psychological and pharmacological treatment. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 2009; 24(6): 312–317.Google Scholar