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A Disputed Utopia: Islamic Economics in Revolutionary Iran

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 June 2009

Sohrab Behdad
Sohrab Behdad
Affiliation:
Denison University
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Type
Utopian Faith
Information
Comparative Studies in Society and History , Volume 36 , Issue 4 , October 1994 , pp. 775 - 813
Copyright
Copyright © Society for the Comparative Study of Society and History 1994

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References

1 The Quran is cited from The Meaning of the Glorious Koran: An Explanatory Translation by Pickthall, Mohammed Marmaduke (New York: The New American Library).Google Scholar

2 For a review of literature, see Siddigi, Muhammad Nejatullah, Muslim Economic Thinking: A Survey of Contemporary Literature (Leicester, U. K.: The Islamic Foundation, 1981);Google Scholar and for an introduction to some debates, see Kuran, Timur, “The Economic System in Contemporary Islamic Thought: Interpretation and Assessment,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 18:2 (05 1986), 135–64;CrossRefGoogle Scholaridem.“Behavioral Norms in the Islamic Doctrine of Economics: A Critique,” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 4:4 (12 1983), 353–79;CrossRefGoogle Scholar and Nomani, Farhad and Rahnema, Au, Islamic Economic Systems (London: Zed Press, 1994).Google Scholar

3 Navvab-Safavi, Mojtaba, Barnameh-ye Enqelabi-ye Fada'ian Eslam (1950), provides a brief sketch of the mode of organizing commerce in his ideal Islamic society. Also, Seyyed Mahmood Talegani's Eslam va Malekivat, a preliminary analysis of Islam's view on economic matters, was first published in 1951, and is available in English as Islam and Ownership, translated from Persian by Ahmad Jabbari and Farhang Rajaee (Lexington KY: Mazda Publishers, 1983).Google Scholar

4 Behdad, Sohrab, “Property Rights in Contemporary Islamic Economic Thought: A Critical Perspective,” Review of Social Economy, 47:2 (1989), 185–211;CrossRefGoogle Scholaridem,“Islamic Economics: A Utopian-Scholastic-Neoclassical-Keynesian Synthesis,” Research in the History of Economic Thought and Methodology, vol. 9 (1992), 221–32.Google Scholar

5 For other critiques of Islamic economics in Iran, see Hosseini, Haamid, “Notions of Private Property in Islamic Economics in Contemporary Iran: A Review of Literature,” International Journal of Social Economics, 15:9 (1988) 51–61;CrossRefGoogle ScholarParvin, Manoucher, “The Political Economy of Divine Unity: A Critique of Islamic Theory and Practice,” in Esfandiari, Haleh and Udovitch, A. L., eds., The Economic Dimensions of Middle Eastern History; Essays in Honor of Charles Issawi (Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 1990), 215–38;Google Scholar and Rahnema, Ali and Nomani, Farhad, The Secular Miracle; Religion, Politics and Economic Policy in Iran (London: Zed Press, 1990).Google Scholar

6 Behdad, , “Property Rights.”Google Scholar

7 Shariati, Ali, Marxism and Other Western Fallacies: An Islamic Critique, translated from Persian (Ensan, Marksism va Eslam [Qum: n.p., 1976]) by R. Campbell (Berkeley: Mizan Press, 1980), 73. The choice of title for the English translation reflects the translator's taste and not necessarily Shariati's. The Persian title may be translated as “Man, Marxism and Islam.” Shariati refused to present himself as an anti-Marxist in his essays and lectures, although it would have been politically convenient to do so in the circumstances of his activist career.Google Scholar

8 Shariati openly and repeatedly addressed in his lectures the existence of a sense of inferiority among Muslim intellectuals about Marxism in these years in Iran. See, for example, “Chegooneh Mandan,” in Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 2 (Daftar-e Tadvin va Enteshar-e Asar-e Bradar-e Shahid Doktor Ali Shariati dar Oropa, n. d. [circa 1978]), pp. 50–53.Google Scholar

9 Nikki R. Keddie makes the point about Afghani. See her An Islamic Response to Imperialism; Political and Religious Writings of Sayved Jamal ad-Din “al-Afghani” (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1983), xvi–xviii.Google Scholar

10 Shariati, Ali, On the Sociology of Islam, translated from Persian by Algar, Hamid (Berkeley: Mizan Press, 1979), 97.Google Scholar This book includes excerpts from Shariati, Ali, Eslamshenasi (I) Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 16.Google Scholar There are also two other volumes to this work, Eslamshenasi (2) Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 17Google Scholar and Eslamshenasi (3) Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 18. They are transcribed from audio tapes by Daffar-e Tadvin va Tanzim-e Majmo'eh-e Asar-e Mo'allem-e Shahid Ali Shariati (henceforth Daftar) and published in Tehran by Entesharat-e Qalam (1981).Google Scholar

11 Shariati, Ali, Ensan, Marksism va Eslam. In this pamphlet, Shariati refutes the allegation of being a materialist. Here (page 63, Campbell's translation ) he points out that “one may find shared elements in any opposing schools of thought” and “similarities of ideals are typically confused with ideological similarities.”Google Scholar

12 Shariati, , On the Sociology of Islam, 92–93.Google Scholar

13 Ibid., 98.

14 Shariati, , On the Sociology of Islam, 98–110.Google Scholar On Shariati and Marxism, see also Abrahamian, Ervand, The Iranian Mojahedin (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 113–18.Google Scholar

15 Ibid., 100.

16 Marx, Karl, “The So-Called Primitive Accumulation,” Capital, vol. I (New York: International Publishers, 1967), part VIII.Google Scholar

17 Shariati, , On the Sociology of Islam, 112–4.Google Scholar

18 Ibid., 111–2. See also Shariati, Ali, From Where Shall We Begin? and The Machine in Captivity of Machinism, translated from Persian by Marjani, Fatollah (Houston: Free Islamic Literature, 1980), 37.Google Scholar

19 à la “Preface” in Marx, Karl, A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (Moscow: Progress Publisher, 1970).Google Scholar

20 In spite of censorship, some descriptions of Marxian analysis were available in Iran in the pre-revolutionary years.

21 Shariati, , On the Sociology of Islam, 108–9.Google Scholar

22 He explains these two tendencies fully in his “Mazhab 'Aleyh-e Mazhab” in Mazhab 'Aleyhe Mazhab, Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 22, Daftar (Tehran: Enesharat-e Sabz, 1982), and alludes to them repeatedly in his other works.Google Scholar

23 Shariati, Ali, Tarikh va Shenakht-e Advan, (1) Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 14, Daftar (Tehran: Sherkat-e Sehami-ye Enteshar, 1981), 7.Google Scholar

24 Shariati, , Eslamshenasi, (1), 56.Google Scholar He uses the notion of Islamic Protestantism in “Az Koja Aghaz Konim?,” in Chehbavad Kard? Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 20, Daftar (Tehran: Entesharat-e Sabz, 1981), 292,Google Scholar and Renaissance, Islamic in “Pedar! Madar! Ma Mottahamim,” in Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 22, 169.Google Scholar

25 In some of his arguments, Shariati's justification for Shi'i Protestantism is based on rejecting Safavi Shi'ism as the religion of the party of Cain, which must have existed in one form or another from the beginning of history. However, on other occasions he bases his analysis on the needs of changing times and social circumstances. This is his line of argument in his Eslamshenasi (1), and Tarikh va Shenakht-e Adyan (1), and Tarikh va Shenakht-e Advan (2), Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 15, Daftar (Tehran: Enteshar, 1983).Google Scholar

26 Khomeini, Rohollah, Kashf al-Asrar (Qum: n.p., n. d. [circa 1943]).Google Scholar See Richards, Yann, “Shari'ati Sangalaji: A Reformist Theologian of the Rida Shah Period,” Said Arjomand, Amir, ed., Authority and Political Culture in Shi'ism (Albany: State University of New York, 1988), 160–1.Google Scholar

27 Ibid., 166. Richard points out that although there are some close similarities between Ali Shariati's thought and those of Shariat-Sangalaji, it is not certain that Shariati was familiar with Shariat-Sangalaji's writings. Ibid., 174.

28 For Fada'ian-Eslam's own account of Kasravi's assassination, see Khoshniyyat, Seyyed Hosein, Seyyed Mojtaba Navvab Safavi; Andisheh-ha, Mobarezat va Shahadat-e ou, (n.p.: Manshour-e Baradari, 1982), 17–25.Google Scholar For a brief review of Islamic Protestantism from the orthodox viewpoint, see Abolhasani, Ali (Monzer), Shahid Mutahhari (Qum: Entesharat-e Eslami, 1983), 158–77.Google Scholar

29 See ibid., 2–4.

30 For a review of the ideological differences between Mutahhari and Shariati, see Rahnema, Ali and Nomani, Farhad, The Secular Miracle, Religion, Politics and Economic Policy in Iran (London: Zed Press, 1990), 37–79;Google ScholarDabashi, Hamid, Theology of Discontent (New York: New York University Press, 1993), 102–215;Google Scholar and Fischer, Michael M. J. and Abedi, Mehdi, Debating Muslims (Madison: The University Press of Wisconsin, 1990), 173–221. Fischer and Abedi also present a concise biography of these two men.Google Scholar

31 Mutahhari, Murtaza, 'Elal-e Gerayesh be Maddigari (Qum: Entesharat-e Sadra, 1978), 34.Google Scholar This book was first printed in 1971. In its eighth printing in 1978, Mutahhari adds a new introduction in which he points to the “dangerous ploy.” He also outlined his explicit criticism of Shariati's Eslamshenasi in a note that he apparently made to himself and was left incomplete by his assassination in May 1979. (Mutahhari was assassinated by Forqan, a group that had a fervent belief in Shariati's doctrine of Islam without clergy.) This note is published as “Eslamshenasi ya Eslamsara'i,” in Abolhasani, , Shahid Mutahhari, 417–35.Google Scholar

32 Mutahhari, Murtaza, Social and Historical Change; An Islamic Perspective, translated from Persian by Campbell, R. (Berkeley: Mizan, 1986), 96–124.Google Scholar

33 Ibid., 111.

34 Ibid., 106. In a clever exegesis of the Quran's oppression verse (XXVIII:5, cited above) Mutahhari rejects any claim by those who point to a class struggle as the course of historical development in Islam. See his Social and Historical Change, 111–16.Google Scholar

35 Ibid., 106.

36 Ibid., 105.

37 Ibid., 120–2.

38 Ibid., 107.

39 Ibid., and Mutahhari, Murtaza, Fundamentals of Islamic Thought: God, Man and the Universe, translated from Persian by Campbell, R. (Berkeley: Mizan Press), 53.Google Scholar

40 Shariati, , Tarikh va Shenakht-e Advan, vol. 2, 25.Google Scholar

41 Ibid., 39.

42 Shariati, , On the Sociology of Islam, 100.Google Scholar

43 Shariati, , From Where Shall We Begin?, 29.Google Scholar Shariati also quotes Abu Dharr saying “I wonder why someone who finds no food in his home does not draw his sword in rebellion against the people.” See Shariati, , Mazhab 'Alevh-e Mazhab, 53.Google Scholar On the story of Abu Dharr, see Behdad, , “Property Rights.”Google Scholar

44 Mutahhari ridicules those who hold these views for seeing the path of a revolution going “through the stomach.” He says that these intellectuals have made of Dharr, Abu, “Abu Dharr of stomach.”Google Scholar See his Social and Historical Change, 117.Google Scholar

45 Mutahhari, , Fundamentals, 96. Here I have quoted The Quran from Pickthall's translation.Google Scholar

46 Ibid.

47 Mutahhari, , Fundamentals, 94–96Google Scholar and his 'Adl-e Elahi (Qum: Entesharat-e Eslami, 1982), 150–54.Google Scholar

48 Ibid., 150.

49 Mutahhari, , Fundamentals, 95.Google Scholar

50 The arguments in this and the following paragraph are from Behdad, , “Property Rights.”Google Scholar

51 See, for example, The Quran, 11:29, 115. 284; XXII:64, 65; LV:10; LVII:5, 10.

52 Talegani's, Seyyed MahmoodEslam va Malekiyat (Tehran: Enteshar, 1965), 121–50;Google Scholar and Tabataba'i, Seyyed Muhammad Hosein, Falsafeh-ye Egtesad-e Eslam, Tavanian-Fard, H., ed. (Tehran: 'Ata'i, 1982), 150–78.Google Scholar

53 See Behdad, , “Property Rights.”Google Scholar

54 Shariati, Ali, From Where Shall We Begin?, 39.Google Scholar

55 Shariati, Ali, “Khodsazi-ye Engelabi,” in Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 2, 147.Google Scholar

56 Shariati, , Eslamshenasi, (2), 296.Google Scholar

57 I use the past tense because some of their views have changed in the more recent years.

58 Iran, Mojahedin-e Kalq-e, Shenakht (Metodolozhi), Ideolozhi, Part 1 (Mojahedin-e Kalq-e Iran: n. p. 09/10 1972).Google Scholar

59 These lectures were published in a series of pamphlets titled, Tab yin-e Jahan (Qava'd-e va Mafhoom-e Takamol); Amoozesha-ye Ideolozhik, (Entesharat-e Sazman-e Mojahedin-e Khalq-e Iran: n. p., 1980).Google Scholar

60 Asgarizadeh, Mahmood, Eqtesad beh Zaben-e Sadeh (n. p.: n. pub., n. d. [circa 1971]).Google Scholar See also Abrahamian, , The Iranian Mojahedin, 92.Google Scholar

61 Iran, Mojahedin-e Khalq-e, Elteqat va Ideolozhiha-ye Eltegati; Majmo'eh-e Seh Sokhanrani (n. p.: Anjoman-e Daneshjoyan-e Mosalman-e Kompiyoter, n. d. [circa 1980]).Google Scholar

62 Noted in a 1978 Mojahedin document. See Abrahamian, , The Iranian Mojahedin, 92.Google Scholar

63 See, for example, Mojahedin, , Shenakht, 10,Google Scholar and Tabvin-e Jahan, 9, 11–12.Google Scholar

64 A statement by Hanifnezhad quoted by Abrahamian, , The Iranian Mojahedin, 93.Google Scholar

65 Mojahedin, , Tabyin-e Jahan, 14.Google Scholar

66 Ibid., 18.

67 Shariati, Ali, From Where Shall We Begin?. 22–23.Google Scholar

68 Ibid., 51.

69 Mojahedin, , Tabyin-e Jahan, no. 6, 16–17.Google Scholar

70 Shariati, Ali, “Cheh Bayad Kard?,” Majmdeh-e Asar, vol. 20, Daftar (?. p.: n. pub.). 506–8.Google Scholar

71 Mojahedin, , Tabyin-e Jahan, 10.Google Scholar

72 shariati, , Eslamshenasi (2), 296.Google Scholar

73 Shariati, , Mazhab 'Alevh-e Mazhab, 222,Google Scholar and “Chegoneh Mandan,” Majmo'eh-e Asar, vol. 2, 83–85.Google Scholar

74 Mojahedin, , Tabyin-e Jahan, 49.Google Scholar

75 Ibid., 49–50.

76 Abrahamian, , The Iranian Mojahedin, 184–85, quoted from Ayandegan (March 1, 1979).Google Scholar

77 Sadr, Seyyed Muhammad Bagir, Egtesad-e Ma, vol. 1, translated by Mosavi-Bojnordi, Muhammad Kazem (n. p.: Entesharat-e Eslami, 1971); vol. 2, translated by Esphbodi, 'A. (Tehran: Entesharat-e Eslami, 1978).Google Scholar The original text in Arabic is Igtisaduna (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1968 [first published 1961]).Google Scholar

78 Talegani, , Eslam va Malekiyat, 122.;Google ScholarTabataba'i, , Falsafeh-ye Egtesad-e Eslam, 158–60.Google Scholar

79 Sadr, , Egtesad-e Ma, vol. 2, 32.Google Scholar

80 Ibid., 33.

81 Sadr, , Eqtesad-e Ma, vol. 1, 354.Google Scholar

82 Ibid., 355.

83 Sadr, , Egtesad-e Ma, vol. 2, 62–63.Google Scholar

84 MacPherson, C. B., “The Meaning of Property,” in his Property: Mainstream and Critical Positions (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978), 4–6.Google Scholar

85 Sadr, , Egtesad-e Ma, vol. 2, 62–63 and 88–89.Google Scholar

86 Ibid., 88.

87 Ibid., 358.

88 Ibid., 358–63.

89 Ibid., 319–20.

90 Ibid., 156–66 and 438–40.

91 Sadr, , Eqtesad-e Ma, vol. 1, 210–47.Google Scholar See also Behdad, Sohrab, “Islamization of Economics in Iranian Universities,” International Journal of Middle East Studies (forthcoming).Google Scholar

92 See Sadr, , Eqtesad-e Ma, vol. 2., 225–56,Google Scholar and Saleh, Nabil A., Unlawful Gain and Legitimate Profit in Islamic Law (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 91–115.Google Scholar For a critical analysis of these Islamic contracts, see Behdad, , “Property Rights.”Google Scholar

93 Sadr, , Eqtesad-e Ma, vol. 2, 209 and 217.Google Scholar

94 Ibid., 207.

95 Ibid., 217 and 221. In this argument, Sadr, obviously, deviates from the Neoclassical notion of value.

96 ibid., 226.

97 For a more thorough analysis of market relations sanctioned by Islamic jurisprudence, see Behdad, , “Property Rights.”Google Scholar

98 Sadr, , Egtesad-e Ma, vol. 2, 330.Google Scholar

99 Ibid., 331.

100 Ibid., 331.

101 Ibid., 341.

102 Rahnema, and Nomani, (The Secular Miracle, 140)Google Scholar place Talegani's views in line with those of Sadr. Talegani, however, remains quite vague on the issue of general social welfare and limits of ownership. For example, according to Talegani, one's ownership should be limited to the extent that it is put to “useful and productive” purposes (Estam va Malekiyat, 141).Google Scholar

103 Ibid., 207.

104 Ibid., 208.

105 Talegani, Mahmood, Partovi a: Quran, Vols. 16 (Tehran: Enteshar, 1967–1973), see also his “Tabyin-e Resalat Baray-e Qiyam ba Qest” (1979)Google Scholar and other essays and sermons, in Majmo'eh-e Goftarha-ye Pedar Talegani (Mojahedin-e Kalq-e Iran, 1979).Google Scholar

106 Sadr, , Eqtesad-e Ma, vol. 1, 244.Google Scholar

107 Ibid., 235. Similar comments may be found on pages 404 and 428.

108 Vardasebi, Abuzar, Jazmiyat-e Falsafeh-ye Hezbi (Tehran: Qalam, 1979), 145–47.Google Scholar In this book Vardasebi refutes the claim that Islam is a class-based religion, as stated by Petrushevsky, I. P. in Islam in Iran, translated from Russian by Evans, Hubert (London: Athlone Press, 1985).Google Scholar

109 Paydar, Dr. Habibollah (Peyman), Bardashtha'i dar Barek-ye Maleki'at, Sarmayeh va Kar, az Didgah-e Eslam (n. p.: Daffar-e Nashr-e Eslami, n. d. [circa 1979]), 32.Google Scholar

110 Ibid., 66.

111 Ibid., 76–77.

112 Ibid., 76.

113 Ibid., 79.

114 Ibid., 137–8,273.

115 Ibid., 134–5, 152.

116 Ibid., 90.

117 Ibid., 315.

118 Banisadr, Abolhasan, Egtesad-e Towhidi (n. p: 02 1979). In the political economy literature in Iran, accumulation (anbasht) is recognized as a Marxist term. Banisadr, an avid anti-Marxist, relies heavily on Quranic terms with similar meanings in political economy. Instead of anbasht, he uses takathor, an Arabic word with the same meaning, and the title of sura CII in the Quran.Google Scholar

119 Perroux, Francois, L' Economie de XXe siècle (Paris: Press Universitaires de France, 1969).Google Scholar

120 Banisadr, , Eqtesad-e Towhidi, 25.Google Scholar

121 Ibid., iv–ix and 28–33.

122 Ibid., ix.

123 Ibid., 341.

124 Ibid., xi.

125 “O ye who believe! Observe your duty to Allah, and give up what remaineth (due to you) from usury, if you are (in truth) believers” (II:278). See Banisadr, , Egtesad-e Towhidi, 137–8.Google Scholar

126 Ibid., 229–30. Here he uses the term andokhteh, meaning saved, rather than takathor, meaning accumulation.

127 Ibid. 243–4.

128 Ibid., 230.

129 Ibid., 232.

130 Ibid., 244.

131 Ibid., 320.

132 Ibid., 320–1.

133 Ibid., 267.

134 I use the word conservative here to refer to laissez-faire economic approach, in contrast to the terms liberal, suggesing a policy of state intervention, and radical, meaning some form of socialism. In this analysis the term conservative is also appropriate from the jurisprudential perspective. The approach discussed here is based on the traditional and prevailing interpretations of Islamic jurisprudence.

135 See Ayatollah Khomeini's statement to the representatives of Islamic Council of the Universities, on April 21, 1980, Kayhan April 22, 1980Google Scholar and reprinted in [Rohollah Khomeini], Payamha va Sokhanraniha-ye Emam Khomeini, vol. 1 (Tehran: Moasseseh-ye Entesharati va Tahgigati-ye Noor, 1980). 36–38.Google Scholar

136 Ayatollah Khomeini's statement to a group of Students of Universities and Seminaries, Kayhan, May 24, 1980,Google Scholar reprinted in Payamha va Sokhanraniha, 82–91. For a detailed analysis of the Cultural Revolution, see Behdad, , “Islamization of Economics in Iranian Universities.”Google Scholar

137 Daneshgah, Daftar-e Hamkari-ye Hozeh va (DHHD), Daramadi bar Eqtesad-e Eslami (n. p.: Salman-e Farsi, 1984).Google Scholar

138 Ibid., 53.

139 Ibid., 81.

140 Ibid., 82.

141 Ibid., 90.

142 Ibid., 52.

143 Ibid., 91.

144 Ibid., 94.

145 Ibid., 95.

146 Ibid., 126 and 154. The Modarressin also see no objection in selling for a price what one acquires from nature in excess of his or her needs. For example, one may sell the water that one gets from a well if it is in excess of his/her needs. Ibid., 171–3.

147 Ibid., 126.

148 Ibid., 143–44.

149 Ibid., 274.

150 Ibid., 202–10.

151 Ibid., 271–5.

152 Ibid., 143–4.

153 Ibid., 186–7 and 274.

154 Ibid., 301.

155 Ibid., 303.

156 Ibid., 288. For statements in praise of merchants in The Quran, see Rodinson, Maxime, Islam and Capitalism (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1978), 16–17.Google Scholar

157 DHHD, Daramadi, 143.Google Scholar

158 Ibid., 302–3.

159 Ibid. 343 and 353–5.

160 Ibid., 305.

161 Ibid., 286 and 353.

162 Ibid., 308.

163 Ibid., 117–8.

164 Ibid., 382–90.

165 Ibid., 292–4.

166 Ibid., 393.

167 Ibid., 396.

168 See Aghnides, Nicolas P., Mohammedan Theories of Finance with an Introduction to Mohammedan Law and a Bibliography (New York: AMS Press, 1969);Google Scholar and Schact, Joseph, An Introduction to Islamic Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982).Google Scholar For a brief summary of fundamentals of Islamic jurisprudence, see Behdad, , “Property Rights,” Appendix.Google Scholar

169 Mutahhari, , 'Ellal-e Garayesh be Maddigari, 209–10.Google Scholar

170 Kayhan, June 19, 1979.Google Scholar

171 See for example, Shariati, , Tashayyu'-e Asavi va Tashayyu'-e Safavi (Tehran: Hoseiniyeh Ershad, 1973), 229–30;Google Scholar and the Iran, Mojahedin-e Khalq-e, Chegoneh Quran Biyamoozim (n. p.: Sazman-e Mojahedin-e Khalq-e Iran, 1979), 16–21.Google Scholar

172 See, for example, Abolhasani, , Shahid Mutahhari, 23–39.Google Scholar

173 Sadr, , Egtesad-e Ma, vol. 2, 34.Google Scholar

174 Ibid., 44.

175 Ibid., 57–58 and 209–10.

176 Mutahhari, Murtaza, “Sarmayehdari, Dorane Towlid-e Mashini!,” in Kayhan Nava'i (12 3, 1986).Google Scholar

177 Mutahhari, Murtaza, “Mashin; Sakhteh-ye Tarikh,” in Kayhan Hava'i (12 10, 1986). Mutahhar, however does not accept formation of surplus value by labor even in the earlier form of capitalism.Google Scholar

178 Mutahhari, , “Mashin; Sakhteh-ye Tarikh,” in Kayhan Hava'i (12 10, 1986).Google Scholar

179 Mutahhari, Murtaza, Barresi-ye Ejmali ve Mabani-ye Eqtesad-e Eslami (n. p.: Enesharat-e Hekmat), 56–57.Google Scholar See also ibid., 94, and 96–97.

180 Ibid., 191–2.

181 Ibid., The publisher's note indicates that this book was published in 100,000 copies. The usual run for books in Iran is about 5,000 to 10,000 copies.

182 [Khomeini, Rohollah], Payara-e Enqelab, vol. 1 (Tehran: Mo'asseseh-ye Farhangi, 1982), 102–3;Google Scholar and idem,Payam va Sokhanraniha-ye Emam Khomeini, vol. 1, 34.Google Scholar

183 Khomeini, Rohollah, Tahrir al-Wasilah (in Arabic) (Najaf: Matbaat al-Adab, 1985).Google Scholar A selection of Ayatollah Khomeini's rulings on economic matters, mainly from Tahrir al-Wasilah is collected and translated into Persian. See Biazar-Shirazi, Abdolkarim, ed., Resaleh Novin, Masa'l-e Egtesadi, with introduction and explanations by the editor, vol. 2 (Tehran: Daftar-Nashr-e Farhang-e Eslami, 1985).Google Scholar

184 See [Khomeini, Rohollah], Dar Jostejo-ye Rah az Kalam-e Emam, in 22 volumes (Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1982).Google Scholar These volumes include Khomeini's statements from 1962 to 1982. Another collection including statements from 1979 to 1989 is published in 21 volumes as Sahifeh-e Noor, Majmo'eh-e Rahnemoodha-ye Emam Khomeini (Tehran: Vezarat-e Ershad-e Eslami, 1983–1990).Google Scholar Excerpts from Khomeini's declarations and speeches on economic matters in this collection is published by Mazhini, Mohsen as “Emam va Eqtesad-e Eslami,” in Kayhan (05 25–08 15, 1992).Google Scholar

185 Rahnema, and Nomani, , The Secular Miracle, 133.Google Scholar

186 Hokomat Eslami has also been published under the title of Velayat-e Faqih. An English translation is available as “Islamic Government,” in [Khomeini, Rohollah], Islam and Revolution, Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini, translated and annotated by Algar, Hamid (Berkeley: Mizan Press, 1981), 25–166.Google Scholar

187 Khomeini, , “Islamic Government,” 62.Google Scholar

188 Ibid., 49.

189 Ibid.

190 Ibid., 132.

191 Khomeini, , Sahifeh-e Noor, vol. 2, p. 212 (10/2/1979-date of declaration). All references to Sahifeh-e Noor are from Mazhini, “Emam va Eqtesad-e Eslami.”Google Scholar

192 [Khomeini, ], Sahifeh-e Noor, vol. 6, 189 (6/16/1979).Google Scholar

193 [Khomeini, Rohollah], Payara-e Enqelab, Majmo'eh-e Pavamha va Bayanat-e Emam Khomeini, vol. 1, 160–81 (Tehran: Payam-e Azadi, 1982).Google Scholar

194 Ibid., 177.

195 [Khomeini, ], Sahifeh-e Noor, vol. 8, 36(6/6/1979).Google Scholar

196 Ibid., vol. 17, 246 (5/8/83).

197 [Khomeini, Rohollah], Payam-e Engelab, Majmo'eh-e Pavamha va Bavanat-e Hairat-e Emam Khomeini, vol. I (Spring 1979) (Tehran: Resa, 1984), 84. (This is a continuation of the series cited above. The volumes in the previous series are numbered 1–4.)Google Scholar

198 [Khomeini, ], Pavam-e Enqelab, vol. III (Fall/Winter 1979/1980), 126.Google Scholar

199 Ibid.

200 DHHD, Daramedi, 189.Google Scholar

201 The content of the talk was publicized in a Friday prayer sermon by MosaviArdebili, Ayatollah, then the Chief of the Supreme Court (Divan-e Ali-ve Keshvar). See Kayhan (November 9, 1985).Google Scholar

202 Mazhini, a Khomeini follower, pointed out that Khomeini accepts capital and rejects capitalism. See Mazhini, Mohsen, “Sarmayeh, Sarmayehda? va Sarmayehdaran,” in Kayhan (06 9, 1992).Google Scholar

203 [Khomeini, Rohollah], Imam Khomeini's Last Will and Testament (English translation) (Washington, D.C.: Interests Section of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Embassy of Algeria, n. d. [1990]), 36.Google Scholar

204 Ibid., 58.

205 Ibid., 55.

206 Ibid., 55–56.

207 Ibid.

208 Khomeini, , “Islamic Government,” 64.Google Scholar

209 See Behdad, Sohrab, “The Political Economy of Islamic Planning in Iran,” in Hooshang Amirahmadi and Manoucher Parvin, Post-Revolutionary Iran (Boulder: West View Press, 1988).Google Scholar

210 Ruznameh Rasmi-ye Keshvar, no. 10092, October 26. 1979 and no. 10238, April 22, 1980.Google Scholar

211 Kayhan (October 24, 1988).Google Scholar

212 See Behdad, Sohrab, “Foreign Exchange Gap, Structural Constraints, and the Political Economy of Exchange Rate Determination in Iran,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 20:1 (02 1988);Google Scholar“Winners and Losers of the Iranian Revolution; A Study in Income Distribution,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, 21:3 (08 1989);Google Scholar and “The Structure of Production and Employment in Post-Revolutionary Iran: An Examination of Involution and De-industrialization Theses,” in The Economy of Islamic Iran: Between State and Market (Paris: Centre National de Ia Recherche Scientifique [forthcoming]).Google Scholar

213 See an interview with Tavakkoli, Ahmad, a candidate for presidency of Iran, Kayhan (May 25, 1993).Google Scholar

214 Kuran, Timur, “Economic Impact of Islamic Fundamentalism,” in Marty, Martin E. and Appleby, R. Scott, eds., Fundamentalism and the State (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993), 306.Google Scholar

215 See his speech at Behesht-e Zahra, upon his return to Iran, in [Khomeini, ], Payara-e Enqelab, vol. 4, (02/03 1979), 22–34,Google Scholar and its English translation in [Khomeini, ], Islam and Revolution, 254–60.Google Scholar

216 [Khomeini, ]. Pavam-e Enqelab, vol. 4, 31.Google Scholar

217 Ibid., vol. I, 29.

218 Behdad, , “Property Rights.”Google Scholar

219 See Mayer, Ann Elizabeth, “The Fundamentalist Impact on Law, Politics, and Constitution in Iran, Pakistan, and Sudan,” in Marty, and Appleby, , eds., Fundamentalism and the State, ch. 7;Google Scholar and Kuran, , “The Economic Impact of Islamic Fundamentalism.”Google Scholar