Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T05:40:55.916Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Sex, Death, and Aristocratic Empire: Iranian Jurisprudence in Late Antiquity

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 March 2016

Richard E. Payne
Richard E. Payne*
Affiliation:
The Oriental Institute and the Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations, University of Chicago
*
repayne@uchicago.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In the Iranian Empire (226–636 CE), jurists drawn from the ranks of the Zoroastrian priestly elite developed a complex of institutions designed to guarantee the reproduction of aristocratic males as long as the empire endured. To overcome the high rate of mortality characteristic of preindustrial demographic regimes, they aimed to maximize the fertility rate without compromising their endogamous ideals through the institutions of reproductive coercion, temporary marriage, and “substitute-successorship.” Occupying a position between the varieties of monogamy and polygyny hitherto practiced in the Ancient Near East, the Iranian organization of sex enabled elites not only to reproduce their patrilineages reliably across multiple generations, but also to achieve an appropriate ratio of resources to number of offspring. As the backbone of this juridical architecture, the imperial court became the anchor of aristocratic power, and ruling and aristocratic dynasties became increasingly intertwined and interdependent, forming the patrilineal networks of the “Iranians”—the agents and beneficiaries of Iranian imperialism. The empire's aristocratic structure took shape through a sexual economy: the court created and circulated sexual and reproductive incentives that incorporated elite males into its network that was, thanks to its politically enhanced inclusive fitness, reliable and reproducible. In demonstrating the centrality of Zoroastrian cosmology to the construction and operation of the relevant juridical institutions, I seek to join the approaches of evolutionary biology and cultural anthropology to reproduction that have been pursued in opposition, to account for the historical role of sex in the consolidation of the Iranian Empire.

Type
Research Article
Information
Comparative Studies in Society and History , Volume 58 , Issue 2 , April 2016 , pp. 519 - 549
Copyright
Copyright © Society for the Comparative Study of Society and History 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Ayādgār ī Zarēr. 1981. In Monchi-Zadeh, Davoud, ed. and trans., Die Geschichte Zarēr's. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell.Google Scholar
The Book of a Thousand Judgments (A Sasanian Law-Book). 1997. Perikhanian, Anahit, trans. Mesa: Mazda Publishers.Google Scholar
Bundahišn. 1956. In Anklesaria, Behramgore Tehmuras, ed. and trans., Zand-Ākāsīh: Iranian or Greater Bundahišn. Bombay: Rahnumae Mazdayasnan Sabah.Google Scholar
Chronicle of Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite. 1882. In Wright, W., ed., The Chronicle of Joshua the Stylite. Cambridge: Cameron University Press.Google Scholar
Chronicle of Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite. 2000. Trombley, Frank R. and Watt, John W., trans. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.Google Scholar
Chronicle of Seert. 1911. In Scher, Addaï, ed. and trans., Histoire nestorienne (Chronique de Séert), v. 1: 1. Paris: Firmin-Didot.Google Scholar
Dēnkard III. 1911. In Madan, Dhanjishnah Meherjibhai, ed., The Complete Text of the Pahlavi Dinkard. Bombay: Ganpatrao Ramajirao Sindhe, 1–407.Google Scholar
Dēnkard III. 1973. In de Menasce, Jean, trans., Le troisiéme livre du Dēnkart. Paris: Librairie C. Klincksieck.Google Scholar
Dēnkard V. 2000. In Amouzgar, Jaleh and Tafazzoli, Ahmad, eds. and trans., Le cinquième livre du Dēnkard: Transciption, traduction et commentaire. Paris: Association pour l'Advancement des Études Iraniennes.Google Scholar
Firdawsī, Šāhnāme. 1987–2008. Volumes 1–8. Khaleghi-Motlagh, Jalal, ed. New York: Bibliotheca Persica.Google Scholar
Hazār Dādestān (MHDA). 1981. In Macuch, Maria, ed. and trans., Das Sasanidische Rechtsbuch “Mātakdān I Hazār Dātistān” (Teil II). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.Google Scholar
Hazār Dādestān (MHD). 1993. In Macuch, Maria, ed. and trans., Rechtskasuistik und Gerichtspraxis zu Beginn des siebenten Jahrhunderts in Iran: Die Rechtsammlung des Farroḫmard I Wahrāmān. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.Google Scholar
Hērbedestān. 1992. In Kotwal, Firoze M. and Kreyenbroek, Philip G., eds. and trans., The Hērbedestān and the Nērangestān, Volume I: Hērbedestān. Paris: Association pour l'Avancement des Études Iraniens.Google Scholar
Husraw ī Kawādān ud Rēdag-ē. 2013. In Azarnouche, Samra, ed. and trans., Husraw ī Kawādān ud Rēdag-ē: Khosrow fils de Kawād et un page. Paris: Association pour l'Avancement des Études Iraniens.Google Scholar
Kirdir, . 1991. Inscription at Ka‘aba-ye Zardosht. In Gignoux, Philippe, ed. and trans., Les quatre inscriptions du mage Kirdir: Textes et concordances. Paris: Association pour l'Avancement des Études Iraniennes.Google Scholar
Łazar P‘arpec‘i, Patmut‘iwn Hayoc.’ 1904. In Ter-Mkrtchean, G., ed., Patmut‘iwn Hayoc‘. Tbilisi: Tparan Ōr.N. Aghaneani.Google Scholar
Letter of Tansar. 1932. In Minovi, Mojtaba, ed., Nāmah-e Tansar bih Jushnasf. Tehran: Matbaʿah-I Majlis.Google Scholar
Letter of Tansar. 1968. Boyce, Mary, trans. Rome: Instituto Italiano per il Media ed Estremo Oriente.Google Scholar
Daskhurants‘i, Movses. 1961. Patmut‘iwn Ałuanits‘. In Dowsett, C.J.F., trans., The History of the Caucasian Albanians. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Daskhurants‘i, Movses. 1983. Patmut‘iwn Ałuanits‘. In Arakelyan, V., ed., Patmut‘iwn Ałuanits’ Ashkharhi. Yerevan: Izdatelstvo Akademii Nauk Armyanskoi SSR.Google Scholar
Pahlavi Rivāyat. 1990. In Williams, A. V., ed. and trans., Pahlavi Rivāyat Accompanying the Dādestān ī Dēnīg. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.Google Scholar
Patmut‘iwn Sebeosi. 1979. Abgaryan, G. A., ed. Yerevan: Izdatelstvo Akademii Nauk Armyanskoi SSR.Google Scholar
Patmut‘iwn Sebeosi. 1999. In Thomson, Robert W., trans., The Armenian History Attributed to Sebeos. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.Google Scholar
Patmut‘iwn srboyn Nersisi. 1853. In anon., ed., Sop‘erk’ Haykakank‘, vol. VI. Venice: I Tparani Mkhitareanc‘, 9–147.Google Scholar
Patmut‘iwn srboyn Nersisi. 1869. Jean-Raphael Emine translation in “Généalogie de la famille de saint Grégoire,” in Langlois, Victor, ed., Collection des historiens anciens et modernes de l'Arménie, vol. II. Paris: Firmin-Didot, 21–41.Google Scholar
Procopius, Wars, Volume I. 1914. Dewing, H. B., ed. and trans. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Šāyest-nē-šāyest. 1990. In Mazdapur, Katiyun, ed. and trans., Šāyast na-šāyast: Matnī be zabān-e Pārsi-ye miyāne. Tehran: Mu'assasah-ye Muṭāla‘āt ve Taḥqīqāt-e Farhangī.Google Scholar
Al-Ṭabarī, . 1964–1965. Ta'rikh al-rusul wa al-mulūk. In Goeje, M. De, ed., Annales, quos scripsit Abu Djafar Mohammed ibn Djarir at-Tabari. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Al-Ṭabarī, . 1999. Ta'rikh al-rusul wa al-mulūk. In Bosworth, C. E., trans., The History of al- Ṭabarī, Volume V: The Sāsānids, the Byzantines, the Lakhmids, and Yemen. Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Widēwdād. 2014. In Moazami, Mahnaz, ed. and trans., Wrestling with the Demons of the Pahlavi Widēwdād: Transcription, Translation, and Commentary. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Wizīdagīhā ī Zādspram. 1993. In Gignoux, Philippe and Tafazzoli, Ahmad, eds., Anthologie de Zādspram: Édition critique du texte pehlevi traduit et commenté. Paris: Association pour l'Avancement des Études Iraniennes.Google Scholar
Arriaza, Bernardo, Allison, Marvin, and Gerszten, Enrique. 1988. Maternal Mortality in Pre-Columbian Indians of Arica, Chile. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 77: 35–41.Google Scholar
Bagnall, Roger S. and Frier, Bruce W.. 1994. The Demography of Roman Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Betzig, Laura L. 1986. Despotism and Differential Reproduction: A Darwinian View of History. New York: Aldine.Google Scholar
Betzig, Laura L. 1993. Sex, Succession, and Stratification in the First Six Civilizations: How Powerful Men Reproduced, Passed Power on to Their Sons, and Used Power to Defend Their Wealth, Women, and Children. In Ellis, Lee, ed., Social Stratification and Socioeconomic Inequality, Volume 1: A Comparative Biosocial Analysis. Westport: Praeger, 37–74.Google Scholar
Biggs, Robert D. 2000. Conception, Contraception, and Abortion in Ancient Mesopotamia. In George, A. R. and Finkel, I. L., eds., Wisdom, Gods and Literature: Studies in Assyriology in Honor of W. G. Lambert. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1–13.Google Scholar
Bigwood, Joan M. 2004. Queen Mousa, Mother and Wife (?) of King Phraatakes of Parthia: A Reevaluation of the Evidence. Mouseion 4: 35–70.Google Scholar
Bigwood, Joan M. 2009. ‘Incestuous’ Marriage in Achaemenid Iran: Myths and Realities. Klio 91: 311–41.Google Scholar
Bogin, Barry. 2001. The Growth of Humanity. New York: Wiley-Liss.Google Scholar
Boix, Carles and Rosenbluth, Frances. 2014. Bones of Contention: The Political Economy of Height Inequality. American Political Science Review 108: 1–22.Google Scholar
Briant, Pierre. 1987. Pouvoir central et polycentrisme culturel dans l'empire achemenide: Quelques réflexions et suggestions. Achaemenid History 1: 1–31.Google Scholar
Canepa, Matthew P. 2013. Building a New Vision of the Past in the Sasanian Empire: The Sanctuaries of Kayānsīh and Great Fires of Iran. Journal of Persianate Studies 6: 64–90.Google Scholar
Casella, Eleanor Conlin and Voss, Barbara L.. 2012. Intimate Encounters: An Archaeology of Sexualities within Colonial Worlds. In Voss, Barbara L. and Casella, Eleanor Conlin, eds., The Archaeology of Colonialism: Intimate Encounters and Sexual Effects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1–10.Google Scholar
Crone, Patricia. 1991. Kavad's Heresy and Mazdak's Revolt. Iran 29: 21–42.Google Scholar
Crone, Patricia. 1994. Zoroastrian Communism. Comparative Studies in Society and History 36: 447–62.Google Scholar
Crone, Patricia. 2012. The Nativist Prophets of Early Islamic Iran: Rural Revolt and Local Zoroastrianism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Daryaee, Touraj. 2010. The Idea of Ērānšahr: Jewish, Christian, and Manichaean Views in Late Antiquity. In Cereti, Carlo G., ed., Iranian Identity in the Course of History: Proceedings of the Conference Held in Rome, 21–24 September 2005. Rome: Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, 91–108.Google Scholar
Diamond, Lisa. 2009. Sexual Fluidity: Understanding Women's Love and Desire. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Elman, Yaakov. 2003. Marriage and Marital Property in Rabbinic and Sasanian Law. In Heszer, Catherine, ed., Rabbinic Law in Its Roman and Near Eastern Context. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck: 227–76.Google Scholar
Elman, Yaakov. 2013. Law in the Crisis of Empire: A Sasanian Example. Journal of Persianate Studies 6: 101–14.Google Scholar
Fortunato, Laura. 2011. Reconstructing the History of Marriage Strategies and Indo-European Speaking Societies: Monogamy and Polygyny. Human Biology 83: 87–105.Google Scholar
Fortunato, Laura and Archetti, Marco. 2010. Evolution of Monogamous Marriage by Maximization of Inclusive Fitness. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 23: 149–56.Google Scholar
Galinsky, Karl. 1981. Augustus’ Legislation on Morals and Marriage. Philologus 125: 126–44.Google Scholar
von Gall, Hubertus. 1990. Das Reiterkampfbild in der iranischen und iranisch beeinflussten Kunst deer parthischer und sasanidischer Zeit. Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag.Google Scholar
Gibson, Kathleen R. 2005. Epigenesis, Brain Plasticity, and Behavioral Versatility: Alternatives to Standard Evolutionary Psychology Models. In McKinnon, Susan and Silverman, Sydel, eds., Complexities: Beyond Nature and Nurture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 23–42.Google Scholar
Gignoux, Philip. 2012. Une archive post-sassanide du Tabaristān (I). In Gyselen, Rika, ed., Objets et documents inscrits en pārsīg. Bures-sur-Yvette: Groupe pour l'Etude de la Civilisation du Moyen-Orient, 29–96.Google Scholar
Gilchrist, Roberta. 2009. Sex and Gender. In Gosden, Chris, Cunliffe, Barry, and Joyce, Rosemary A., eds., The Oxford Handbook of Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1029–47.Google Scholar
Gnoli, Gheradro. 1989. The Idea of Iran: An Essay on Its Origin. Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente.Google Scholar
Godelier, Maurice. 2011. The Metamorphoses of Kinship. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Graham, Wendy, et al. 2010. The Geography of Maternal Death. In Kehoe, Sean, Neilsen, James, and Norman, Jane, eds., Maternal and Infant Deaths: Chasing Millennium Development Goals 4 and 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 3–28.Google Scholar
Gyselen, Rika. 2007. Sasanian Seals and Sealings in the A. Saeedi Collection. Louvain: Peeters.Google Scholar
Gyselen, Rika. 2009. Primary Sources and Historiography of the Sasanian Empire. Studia Iranica 38: 163–90.Google Scholar
Haldon, John. 1993. The State and the Tributary Mode of Production. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Harper, Kyle. 2013. Culture, Nature, and History: The Case of Ancient Sexuality. Comparative Studies in Society and History 55: 986–1016.Google Scholar
Harper, Kyle. 2014. The Sentimental Family: A Biohistorical Perspective. American Historical Review 119: 1547–62.Google Scholar
Heinrich, Joseph, Boyd, Robert, and Richerson, Peter J.. 2012. The Puzzle of Monogamous Marriage. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 367: 657–69.Google Scholar
Herlihy, David. 1995. Biology and History: The Triumph of Monogamy. Journal of Interdisciplinary History 25: 571–83.Google Scholar
Hjerrild, Bodil. 2003. Studies in Zoroastrian Family Law: A Comparative Analysis. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.Google Scholar
Hjerrild, Bodil. 2006. Succession and Kinship in the Late Sasanian Era. In Panaino, Antonio and Piras, Andrea, eds., Proceedings of the Fifth Conference of the Societas Iranologica Europaea, Volume I: Ancient and Middle Iranian Studies. Milan: Mimesis: 479–84.Google Scholar
Hjerrild, Bodil. 2007. Some Aspects of the Institution of Stūrīh. In Vahman, Fereydun and Pedersen, Claus V., eds., Religious Texts in Iranian Languages: Symposium Held in Copenhagen May 2002. Copenhagen: Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, 165–74.Google Scholar
Hopkins, Keith. 1983. Death and Renewal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Howard-Johnston, James. 2012. The Late Sasanian Army. In Bernheimer, Teresa and Silverstein, Adam, eds., Late Antiquity: Eastern Perspectives. Oxford: Gibb Memorial Trust, 87–127.Google Scholar
Hübner, Sabine. 2007. ‘Brother-Sister Marriage’ in Roman Egypt: A Curiosity of Humankind or a Widespread Family Strategy? Journal of Roman Studies 97: 21–48.Google Scholar
Hübner, Sabine. 2011. Household Composition in the Ancient Mediterranean—What Do We Really Know? In Rawson, Beryl, ed., A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 108–15.Google Scholar
Huijs, Joost. 2014. Images of Parthian Queens. In Marti, Lionel, ed., La famille dans le Proche-Orient ancien: réalités, symbolismes, et images. Wynona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 605–42.Google Scholar
Jany, János. 2006. The Jurisprudence of the Sasanian Sages. Journal Asiatique 294: 291–323.Google Scholar
de Jong, Albert. 1997. Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Komlos, John. 2009. Anthropometric History: An Overview of a Quarter Century of Research. Anthropologischer Anzeiger 67: 341–56.Google Scholar
König, Götz. 2010. Geschlechtsmoral und Gleichgeschlechtlichkeit im Zoroastrismus. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2010.Google Scholar
Lee, A. D. 1988. Close-Kin Marriage in the Late Antique Mesopotamia. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 29: 403–13.Google Scholar
Lee, A. D. 2013. Roman Warfare with Sasanian Persia. In Campbell, Brian and Tritle, Lawrence A., eds., The Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 708–25.Google Scholar
Lincoln, Bruce. 2010. Human Unity and Diversity in Zoroastrian Mythology. History of Religions 50: 7–20.Google Scholar
Littleton, Judith. 1998. Skeletons and Social Composition: Bahrain 300 BC–AD 250. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.Google Scholar
Littleton, Judith. 2011. Moving from the Canary in the Coalmine: Modeling Childhood in Bahrain. In Agarwal, Sabrina C. and Glencross, Bonnie A., eds., Social Bioarchaeology. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 361–89.Google Scholar
Lukonin, Vladimir. 1969. Kultura Sasanidskovo Iran, Volumes III–V vv.: Ocherki po Istorii Kulturi. Moscow: Nauka.Google Scholar
Maat, G.J.R. 2005. Two Millennia of Male Statue Development and Population Health and Wealth in the Low Countries. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 15: 276–90.Google Scholar
Mace, Ruth. 2007. The Evolutionary Ecology of Human Family Size. In Dunbar, R.I.M. and Barrett, Louise, eds., Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 383–96.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 1981. Das Sasanidische Rechtsbuch, Mātakdān i Hazār Dātistān (Teil II). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 1985. Die Zeitehe im sasanidischen Recht—ein Vorläufer der šī‘itischen mut‘a-Ehe in Iran? Archaeologische Mitteilungen aus Iran 18: 187–203.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 1991. Inzest im vorislamischen Iran. Archaeologische Mitteilungen aus Iran 24: 141–54.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 1993. Rechtskasuistik und Gerichtspraxis zu Beginn des siebenten Jahrhunderts in Iran: Die Rechtsammlung des Farroḫmard i Wahrāmān. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 1995. Herrschaftskonsolidierung und sasanidische Familienrecht: zum Verhältnis von Kirche und Staat unter den Sasaniden. In Reck, Christiane and Zieme, Peter, eds., Iran und Turfan: Beiträge Berliner Wissenschaftler, Werner Sundermann zum 60. Geburtstag gewidmet. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 149–67.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 2005. Language and Law: Linguistic Peculiarities in Sasanian Jurisprudence. In Weber, Dieter, ed., Languages of Iran: Past and Present—Iranian Studies in Memoriam David Neil Mackenzie. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 95–108.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 2006. The Function of Temporary Marriage in the Context of Sasanian Family Law. In Panaino, Antonion and Piras, Andrea, eds., Proceedings of the Fifth Conference of the Societas Iranologica Europaea, Volume I: Ancient and Middle Iranian Studies. Milan: Mimesis, 585–97.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 2008. Zur juristischen Terminologie der Berliner Pahlavi-Dokumente. In Weber, Dieter, ed., Berliner Pahlavi-Dokumente: Zeugnisse spätsassanidischer Brief-und Rechtskultur aus frühislamischer Zeit. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 249–66.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 2009. Pahlavi Literature. In Emmerick, Ronald E. and Macuch, Maria, eds., The Literature of Pre-Islamic Iran: Companion Volume I to A History of Persian Literature. London: I. B. Tauris, 116–96.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 2010. Incestuous Marriage in the Context of Sasanian Family Law. In Macuch, Maria, Weber, Dieter, and Durkin-Meisterernst, Desmond, eds., Ancient and Middle Iranian Studies: Proceedings of the Sixth European Conference of Iranian Studies. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 133–48.Google Scholar
Mardirossian, Aram. 2004. Le livre des canons arméniens (Kanonagirkc Hayocc) de Yovhannēs Awjnecʿi: Église, droit, et société en Arménie du IVe au VIIIe siècle. Louvain: Peeters.Google Scholar
McDonough, Scott. 2011. The Legs of the Throne: Kings, Elites, and Subjects in Sassanian Iran. In Arnason, Johann P. and Raaflaub, Kurt A., eds., The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 290–321.Google Scholar
Melville, Sarah C. 2004. Neo-Assyrian Royal Women and Male Identity: Status as a Social Tool. Journal of the American Oriental Society 124: 37–57.Google Scholar
Nikonorov, Valery P. K. 2005. Voprosu o Parfyanskom Nasledii v Sasanidskom Irane: Voennoe Delo. In Nikonorov, Valery P. K., ed., Tsentralnaya Aziya ot Akhemenidov do Timuridov: Arkheologiya, Istoriya, Etnologiya, Kultura. St. Petersburg: Institut Istorii Materialnoi Kulturi, 141–79.Google Scholar
Ogden, Daniel. 1999. Polygamy, Prostitutes and Death: The Hellenistic Dynasties. London: Duckworth.Google Scholar
Parpola, Simo. 2012. The Neo-Assyrian Royal Harem. In Lanfranchi, Giovanni B., et al. , eds., Leggo! Studies Presented to Frederick Mario Fales on the Occasion of his 65th Birthday. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 613–26.Google Scholar
Payne, Richard. 2013. Cosmology and the Expansion of the Iranian Empire, 502–628 CE. Past and Present 220: 3–33.Google Scholar
Payne, Richard. 2015a. A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture in Late Antiquity. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Payne, Richard. 2015b. East Syrian Bishops, Elite Households, and Iranian Law after the Muslim Conquest. Iranian Studies 48: 5–32.Google Scholar
Payne, Richard. 2015c. The Reinvention of Iran: The Sasanian Empire and the Huns. In Maas, Michael, ed., The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 282–99.Google Scholar
Payne, Richard. n.d. (forthcoming 2016). Territorializing Iran: Autocracy, Aristocracy, and the Geographical Infrastructure of Empire in Late Antiquity. In Ando, Clifford and Richardson, Seth, eds., Infrastructural and Despotic Power in Ancient States. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Perikhanian, Anahit. 1983. Obshchestvo i Pravo Irana v Parfyanskii i Sasanidskii Periodi. Moscow: Izdatelstvo Nauka.Google Scholar
Pomeroy, Emma, et al. 2015. Relationships of Maternal and Paternal Anthropometry with Neonatal Body Size, Proportions and Adiposity in an Australian Cohort. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 156: 625–36.Google Scholar
Pourshariati, Parvaneh. 2008. Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran. London: I. B. Tauris.Google Scholar
Rogers, Lesley. 2001. Sexing the Brain. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Roth, Martha. 1987. Age at Marriage and the Household: A Study of Neo-Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Forms. Comparative Studies in Society and History 29: 715–47.Google Scholar
Rowlandson, Jane and Takahashi, Ryosuke. 2009. Brother Sister Marriage and Inheritance Strategies in Greco-Roman Egypt. Journal of Roman Studies 99: 104–39.Google Scholar
Rubin, Zeev. 2000. The Sassanid Monarchy. In Cameron, Averil, et al. , eds., Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 14, Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A.D. 425–600. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 638–61.Google Scholar
Rubin, Zeev. 2004. Nobility, Monarchy and Legitimation under the Later Sasanians. In Haldon, John and Conrad, Lawrence I., eds., The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East, Volume VI, Elites Old and New in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East. Princeton: Darwin Press, 235–73.Google Scholar
Saller, Richard. 1994. Patriarchy, Property, and Death in the Roman Family. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Scheidel, Walter. 1999. Emperors, Aristocrats, and the Grim Reaper: Toward a Demographic Profile of the Roman Élite. Classical Quarterly 49: 254–81.Google Scholar
Scheidel, Walter. 2001. Progress and Problems in Roman Demography. In Scheidel, Walter, ed., Debating Roman Demography. Leiden: Brill, 1–81.Google Scholar
Scheidel, Walter. 2004. Demographic and Economic Development in the Ancient Mediterranean World. Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 160: 743–57.Google Scholar
Scheidel, Walter. 2007. Roman Funerary Commemoration and the Age at First Marriage. Classical Philology 102: 389–402.Google Scholar
Scheidel, Walter. 2009a. Sex and Empire: A Darwinian Perspective. In Morris, Ian and Scheidel, Walter, eds., The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 255–324.Google Scholar
Scheidel, Walter. 2009b. A Peculiar Institution? Greco-Roman Monogamy in Global Context. History of the Family 14: 280–91.Google Scholar
Scheidel, Walter. 2011. Monogamy and Polygyny. In Rawson, Beryl, ed., A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 108–15.Google Scholar
Shaked, Shaul. 1990. Administrative Functions of Priests in the Sasanian Period. In Gnoli, Gherardo and Panaino, Antonio, eds., Proceedings of the First European Conference of Iranian Studies, Part I, Old and Middle Iranian Studies. Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 261–73.Google Scholar
Shaked, Shaul. 2008. Religion in the Late Sasanian Period: Eran, Aneran, and other Religious Designations. In Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah, eds., The Sasanian Era: The Idea of Iran Volume III. London: I. B. Tauris, 103–17.Google Scholar
Shaked, Shaul. 2010. Human Identity and Classes of People in the Pahlavi Books. In Cereti, Carlo G., ed., Iranian Identity in the Course of History: Proceedings of the Conference Held in Rome, 21–24 September 2005. Rome: Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, 331–45.Google Scholar
Shaw, Brent D. 1987. The Age of Roman Girls and Marriage: Some Reconsiderations. Journal of Roman Studies 77: 30–46.Google Scholar
Silk, Jonathan. 2008. Putative Persian Perversities: Buddhist Condemnations of Zoroastrian Close-Kin Marriage in Context. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 71: 433–64.Google Scholar
Simpson, St. John and Molleson, Theya. 2014. Old Bones Overturned: New Evidence for Funerary Practices from the Sasanian Empire. In Fletcher, A., Antoine, D., and Hill, J. D., eds., Regarding the Dead: Human Remains in the British Museum. London: British Museum Press, 77–90.Google Scholar
Sohn, Peter. 1996. Die Medizin des Zādsparam: Anatomie, Physiologie und Psychologie in den Wizīdagīhā ī Zādsparam, einer zoroastrisch-mittelpersischen Anthologie aus dem frühislamischen Iran des neunten Jahrhunderts. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.Google Scholar
Steckel, Richard H. 1995. Stature and the Standard of Living. Journal of Economic Literature 33: 1903–40.Google Scholar
Steckel, Richard H. 2004. New Light on the ‘Dark Ages’: The Remarkably Tall Stature of Northern European Men during the Medieval Era. Social Science History 28: 211–28.Google Scholar
Steckel, Richard H. and Prince, Joseph M.. 2001. Tallest in the World: Native Americans of the Great Plains in the Nineteenth Century. American Economic Review 91: 287–94.Google Scholar
Traina, Giusto. 2012. L'empire chrétien et l'inceste oriental. In Badel, Christophe and Settipani, Christian, eds., Les stratégies familiales dans l'antiquité tardive. Paris: De Boccard, 167–79.Google Scholar
Voss, Barbara L. 2008a. Domesticating Imperialism: Sexual Politics and the Archaeology of Empire. American Anthropologist 110: 191–203.Google Scholar
Voss, Barbara L. 2008b. Sexuality Studies in Archaeology. Annual Review of Anthropology 37, 317–36.Google Scholar
Walker, Joel. 2006. The Legend of Mar Qardagh: Narrative and Christian Heroism in Late Antique Iraq. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 1981. Family and Inheritance in the Augustan Marriage Laws. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 27: 58–80.Google Scholar
Widengren, Geo. 1967. Der Feudalismus im alten Iran: Männerbund, Gefolgswesen, Feudalismus in der iranischen Gesellschaft im Hinblick auf die indogermanischen Verhältnisse. Cologne and Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.Google Scholar
Wiesehöfer, Josef. 2010. The Late Sasanian Near East. In Robinson, Chase, ed., The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume I: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 98–152.Google Scholar
Wittke, Anne-Maria. 2010. Exogamie, Hypergamie, Polygamie: Heiraten in Zeugnissen des frühen 1. Jahrtausends v. Chr. zu Kleinasien. In Rollinger, Robert, et al. , eds., Interkulturalität in der alten Welt: Vorderasien, Hellas, Ägypten und die vielfältigen Ebenen des Kontakts. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 451–69.Google Scholar
Xue, Yali et al. 2003. The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols. American Journal of Human Genetics 72: 717–21.Google Scholar
Ayādgār ī Zarēr. 1981. In Monchi-Zadeh, Davoud, ed. and trans., Die Geschichte Zarēr's. Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell.Google Scholar
The Book of a Thousand Judgments (A Sasanian Law-Book). 1997. Perikhanian, Anahit, trans. Mesa: Mazda Publishers.Google Scholar
Bundahišn. 1956. In Anklesaria, Behramgore Tehmuras, ed. and trans., Zand-Ākāsīh: Iranian or Greater Bundahišn. Bombay: Rahnumae Mazdayasnan Sabah.Google Scholar
Chronicle of Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite. 1882. In Wright, W., ed., The Chronicle of Joshua the Stylite. Cambridge: Cameron University Press.Google Scholar
Chronicle of Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite. 2000. Trombley, Frank R. and Watt, John W., trans. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.Google Scholar
Chronicle of Seert. 1911. In Scher, Addaï, ed. and trans., Histoire nestorienne (Chronique de Séert), v. 1: 1. Paris: Firmin-Didot.Google Scholar
Dēnkard III. 1911. In Madan, Dhanjishnah Meherjibhai, ed., The Complete Text of the Pahlavi Dinkard. Bombay: Ganpatrao Ramajirao Sindhe, 1–407.Google Scholar
Dēnkard III. 1973. In de Menasce, Jean, trans., Le troisiéme livre du Dēnkart. Paris: Librairie C. Klincksieck.Google Scholar
Dēnkard V. 2000. In Amouzgar, Jaleh and Tafazzoli, Ahmad, eds. and trans., Le cinquième livre du Dēnkard: Transciption, traduction et commentaire. Paris: Association pour l'Advancement des Études Iraniennes.Google Scholar
Firdawsī, Šāhnāme. 1987–2008. Volumes 1–8. Khaleghi-Motlagh, Jalal, ed. New York: Bibliotheca Persica.Google Scholar
Hazār Dādestān (MHDA). 1981. In Macuch, Maria, ed. and trans., Das Sasanidische Rechtsbuch “Mātakdān I Hazār Dātistān” (Teil II). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.Google Scholar
Hazār Dādestān (MHD). 1993. In Macuch, Maria, ed. and trans., Rechtskasuistik und Gerichtspraxis zu Beginn des siebenten Jahrhunderts in Iran: Die Rechtsammlung des Farroḫmard I Wahrāmān. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.Google Scholar
Hērbedestān. 1992. In Kotwal, Firoze M. and Kreyenbroek, Philip G., eds. and trans., The Hērbedestān and the Nērangestān, Volume I: Hērbedestān. Paris: Association pour l'Avancement des Études Iraniens.Google Scholar
Husraw ī Kawādān ud Rēdag-ē. 2013. In Azarnouche, Samra, ed. and trans., Husraw ī Kawādān ud Rēdag-ē: Khosrow fils de Kawād et un page. Paris: Association pour l'Avancement des Études Iraniens.Google Scholar
Kirdir, . 1991. Inscription at Ka‘aba-ye Zardosht. In Gignoux, Philippe, ed. and trans., Les quatre inscriptions du mage Kirdir: Textes et concordances. Paris: Association pour l'Avancement des Études Iraniennes.Google Scholar
Łazar P‘arpec‘i, Patmut‘iwn Hayoc.’ 1904. In Ter-Mkrtchean, G., ed., Patmut‘iwn Hayoc‘. Tbilisi: Tparan Ōr.N. Aghaneani.Google Scholar
Letter of Tansar. 1932. In Minovi, Mojtaba, ed., Nāmah-e Tansar bih Jushnasf. Tehran: Matbaʿah-I Majlis.Google Scholar
Letter of Tansar. 1968. Boyce, Mary, trans. Rome: Instituto Italiano per il Media ed Estremo Oriente.Google Scholar
Daskhurants‘i, Movses. 1961. Patmut‘iwn Ałuanits‘. In Dowsett, C.J.F., trans., The History of the Caucasian Albanians. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Daskhurants‘i, Movses. 1983. Patmut‘iwn Ałuanits‘. In Arakelyan, V., ed., Patmut‘iwn Ałuanits’ Ashkharhi. Yerevan: Izdatelstvo Akademii Nauk Armyanskoi SSR.Google Scholar
Pahlavi Rivāyat. 1990. In Williams, A. V., ed. and trans., Pahlavi Rivāyat Accompanying the Dādestān ī Dēnīg. Copenhagen: Munksgaard.Google Scholar
Patmut‘iwn Sebeosi. 1979. Abgaryan, G. A., ed. Yerevan: Izdatelstvo Akademii Nauk Armyanskoi SSR.Google Scholar
Patmut‘iwn Sebeosi. 1999. In Thomson, Robert W., trans., The Armenian History Attributed to Sebeos. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.Google Scholar
Patmut‘iwn srboyn Nersisi. 1853. In anon., ed., Sop‘erk’ Haykakank‘, vol. VI. Venice: I Tparani Mkhitareanc‘, 9–147.Google Scholar
Patmut‘iwn srboyn Nersisi. 1869. Jean-Raphael Emine translation in “Généalogie de la famille de saint Grégoire,” in Langlois, Victor, ed., Collection des historiens anciens et modernes de l'Arménie, vol. II. Paris: Firmin-Didot, 21–41.Google Scholar
Procopius, Wars, Volume I. 1914. Dewing, H. B., ed. and trans. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Šāyest-nē-šāyest. 1990. In Mazdapur, Katiyun, ed. and trans., Šāyast na-šāyast: Matnī be zabān-e Pārsi-ye miyāne. Tehran: Mu'assasah-ye Muṭāla‘āt ve Taḥqīqāt-e Farhangī.Google Scholar
Al-Ṭabarī, . 1964–1965. Ta'rikh al-rusul wa al-mulūk. In Goeje, M. De, ed., Annales, quos scripsit Abu Djafar Mohammed ibn Djarir at-Tabari. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Al-Ṭabarī, . 1999. Ta'rikh al-rusul wa al-mulūk. In Bosworth, C. E., trans., The History of al- Ṭabarī, Volume V: The Sāsānids, the Byzantines, the Lakhmids, and Yemen. Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Widēwdād. 2014. In Moazami, Mahnaz, ed. and trans., Wrestling with the Demons of the Pahlavi Widēwdād: Transcription, Translation, and Commentary. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Wizīdagīhā ī Zādspram. 1993. In Gignoux, Philippe and Tafazzoli, Ahmad, eds., Anthologie de Zādspram: Édition critique du texte pehlevi traduit et commenté. Paris: Association pour l'Avancement des Études Iraniennes.Google Scholar
Arriaza, Bernardo, Allison, Marvin, and Gerszten, Enrique. 1988. Maternal Mortality in Pre-Columbian Indians of Arica, Chile. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 77: 35–41.Google Scholar
Bagnall, Roger S. and Frier, Bruce W.. 1994. The Demography of Roman Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Betzig, Laura L. 1986. Despotism and Differential Reproduction: A Darwinian View of History. New York: Aldine.Google Scholar
Betzig, Laura L. 1993. Sex, Succession, and Stratification in the First Six Civilizations: How Powerful Men Reproduced, Passed Power on to Their Sons, and Used Power to Defend Their Wealth, Women, and Children. In Ellis, Lee, ed., Social Stratification and Socioeconomic Inequality, Volume 1: A Comparative Biosocial Analysis. Westport: Praeger, 37–74.Google Scholar
Biggs, Robert D. 2000. Conception, Contraception, and Abortion in Ancient Mesopotamia. In George, A. R. and Finkel, I. L., eds., Wisdom, Gods and Literature: Studies in Assyriology in Honor of W. G. Lambert. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 1–13.Google Scholar
Bigwood, Joan M. 2004. Queen Mousa, Mother and Wife (?) of King Phraatakes of Parthia: A Reevaluation of the Evidence. Mouseion 4: 35–70.Google Scholar
Bigwood, Joan M. 2009. ‘Incestuous’ Marriage in Achaemenid Iran: Myths and Realities. Klio 91: 311–41.Google Scholar
Bogin, Barry. 2001. The Growth of Humanity. New York: Wiley-Liss.Google Scholar
Boix, Carles and Rosenbluth, Frances. 2014. Bones of Contention: The Political Economy of Height Inequality. American Political Science Review 108: 1–22.Google Scholar
Briant, Pierre. 1987. Pouvoir central et polycentrisme culturel dans l'empire achemenide: Quelques réflexions et suggestions. Achaemenid History 1: 1–31.Google Scholar
Canepa, Matthew P. 2013. Building a New Vision of the Past in the Sasanian Empire: The Sanctuaries of Kayānsīh and Great Fires of Iran. Journal of Persianate Studies 6: 64–90.Google Scholar
Casella, Eleanor Conlin and Voss, Barbara L.. 2012. Intimate Encounters: An Archaeology of Sexualities within Colonial Worlds. In Voss, Barbara L. and Casella, Eleanor Conlin, eds., The Archaeology of Colonialism: Intimate Encounters and Sexual Effects. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1–10.Google Scholar
Crone, Patricia. 1991. Kavad's Heresy and Mazdak's Revolt. Iran 29: 21–42.Google Scholar
Crone, Patricia. 1994. Zoroastrian Communism. Comparative Studies in Society and History 36: 447–62.Google Scholar
Crone, Patricia. 2012. The Nativist Prophets of Early Islamic Iran: Rural Revolt and Local Zoroastrianism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Daryaee, Touraj. 2010. The Idea of Ērānšahr: Jewish, Christian, and Manichaean Views in Late Antiquity. In Cereti, Carlo G., ed., Iranian Identity in the Course of History: Proceedings of the Conference Held in Rome, 21–24 September 2005. Rome: Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, 91–108.Google Scholar
Diamond, Lisa. 2009. Sexual Fluidity: Understanding Women's Love and Desire. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Elman, Yaakov. 2003. Marriage and Marital Property in Rabbinic and Sasanian Law. In Heszer, Catherine, ed., Rabbinic Law in Its Roman and Near Eastern Context. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck: 227–76.Google Scholar
Elman, Yaakov. 2013. Law in the Crisis of Empire: A Sasanian Example. Journal of Persianate Studies 6: 101–14.Google Scholar
Fortunato, Laura. 2011. Reconstructing the History of Marriage Strategies and Indo-European Speaking Societies: Monogamy and Polygyny. Human Biology 83: 87–105.Google Scholar
Fortunato, Laura and Archetti, Marco. 2010. Evolution of Monogamous Marriage by Maximization of Inclusive Fitness. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 23: 149–56.Google Scholar
Galinsky, Karl. 1981. Augustus’ Legislation on Morals and Marriage. Philologus 125: 126–44.Google Scholar
von Gall, Hubertus. 1990. Das Reiterkampfbild in der iranischen und iranisch beeinflussten Kunst deer parthischer und sasanidischer Zeit. Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag.Google Scholar
Gibson, Kathleen R. 2005. Epigenesis, Brain Plasticity, and Behavioral Versatility: Alternatives to Standard Evolutionary Psychology Models. In McKinnon, Susan and Silverman, Sydel, eds., Complexities: Beyond Nature and Nurture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 23–42.Google Scholar
Gignoux, Philip. 2012. Une archive post-sassanide du Tabaristān (I). In Gyselen, Rika, ed., Objets et documents inscrits en pārsīg. Bures-sur-Yvette: Groupe pour l'Etude de la Civilisation du Moyen-Orient, 29–96.Google Scholar
Gilchrist, Roberta. 2009. Sex and Gender. In Gosden, Chris, Cunliffe, Barry, and Joyce, Rosemary A., eds., The Oxford Handbook of Archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1029–47.Google Scholar
Gnoli, Gheradro. 1989. The Idea of Iran: An Essay on Its Origin. Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente.Google Scholar
Godelier, Maurice. 2011. The Metamorphoses of Kinship. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Graham, Wendy, et al. 2010. The Geography of Maternal Death. In Kehoe, Sean, Neilsen, James, and Norman, Jane, eds., Maternal and Infant Deaths: Chasing Millennium Development Goals 4 and 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 3–28.Google Scholar
Gyselen, Rika. 2007. Sasanian Seals and Sealings in the A. Saeedi Collection. Louvain: Peeters.Google Scholar
Gyselen, Rika. 2009. Primary Sources and Historiography of the Sasanian Empire. Studia Iranica 38: 163–90.Google Scholar
Haldon, John. 1993. The State and the Tributary Mode of Production. London: Verso.Google Scholar
Harper, Kyle. 2013. Culture, Nature, and History: The Case of Ancient Sexuality. Comparative Studies in Society and History 55: 986–1016.Google Scholar
Harper, Kyle. 2014. The Sentimental Family: A Biohistorical Perspective. American Historical Review 119: 1547–62.Google Scholar
Heinrich, Joseph, Boyd, Robert, and Richerson, Peter J.. 2012. The Puzzle of Monogamous Marriage. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society 367: 657–69.Google Scholar
Herlihy, David. 1995. Biology and History: The Triumph of Monogamy. Journal of Interdisciplinary History 25: 571–83.Google Scholar
Hjerrild, Bodil. 2003. Studies in Zoroastrian Family Law: A Comparative Analysis. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press.Google Scholar
Hjerrild, Bodil. 2006. Succession and Kinship in the Late Sasanian Era. In Panaino, Antonio and Piras, Andrea, eds., Proceedings of the Fifth Conference of the Societas Iranologica Europaea, Volume I: Ancient and Middle Iranian Studies. Milan: Mimesis: 479–84.Google Scholar
Hjerrild, Bodil. 2007. Some Aspects of the Institution of Stūrīh. In Vahman, Fereydun and Pedersen, Claus V., eds., Religious Texts in Iranian Languages: Symposium Held in Copenhagen May 2002. Copenhagen: Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, 165–74.Google Scholar
Hopkins, Keith. 1983. Death and Renewal. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Howard-Johnston, James. 2012. The Late Sasanian Army. In Bernheimer, Teresa and Silverstein, Adam, eds., Late Antiquity: Eastern Perspectives. Oxford: Gibb Memorial Trust, 87–127.Google Scholar
Hübner, Sabine. 2007. ‘Brother-Sister Marriage’ in Roman Egypt: A Curiosity of Humankind or a Widespread Family Strategy? Journal of Roman Studies 97: 21–48.Google Scholar
Hübner, Sabine. 2011. Household Composition in the Ancient Mediterranean—What Do We Really Know? In Rawson, Beryl, ed., A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 108–15.Google Scholar
Huijs, Joost. 2014. Images of Parthian Queens. In Marti, Lionel, ed., La famille dans le Proche-Orient ancien: réalités, symbolismes, et images. Wynona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 605–42.Google Scholar
Jany, János. 2006. The Jurisprudence of the Sasanian Sages. Journal Asiatique 294: 291–323.Google Scholar
de Jong, Albert. 1997. Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Komlos, John. 2009. Anthropometric History: An Overview of a Quarter Century of Research. Anthropologischer Anzeiger 67: 341–56.Google Scholar
König, Götz. 2010. Geschlechtsmoral und Gleichgeschlechtlichkeit im Zoroastrismus. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 2010.Google Scholar
Lee, A. D. 1988. Close-Kin Marriage in the Late Antique Mesopotamia. Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 29: 403–13.Google Scholar
Lee, A. D. 2013. Roman Warfare with Sasanian Persia. In Campbell, Brian and Tritle, Lawrence A., eds., The Oxford Handbook of Warfare in the Classical World. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 708–25.Google Scholar
Lincoln, Bruce. 2010. Human Unity and Diversity in Zoroastrian Mythology. History of Religions 50: 7–20.Google Scholar
Littleton, Judith. 1998. Skeletons and Social Composition: Bahrain 300 BC–AD 250. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.Google Scholar
Littleton, Judith. 2011. Moving from the Canary in the Coalmine: Modeling Childhood in Bahrain. In Agarwal, Sabrina C. and Glencross, Bonnie A., eds., Social Bioarchaeology. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 361–89.Google Scholar
Lukonin, Vladimir. 1969. Kultura Sasanidskovo Iran, Volumes III–V vv.: Ocherki po Istorii Kulturi. Moscow: Nauka.Google Scholar
Maat, G.J.R. 2005. Two Millennia of Male Statue Development and Population Health and Wealth in the Low Countries. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 15: 276–90.Google Scholar
Mace, Ruth. 2007. The Evolutionary Ecology of Human Family Size. In Dunbar, R.I.M. and Barrett, Louise, eds., Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 383–96.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 1981. Das Sasanidische Rechtsbuch, Mātakdān i Hazār Dātistān (Teil II). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 1985. Die Zeitehe im sasanidischen Recht—ein Vorläufer der šī‘itischen mut‘a-Ehe in Iran? Archaeologische Mitteilungen aus Iran 18: 187–203.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 1991. Inzest im vorislamischen Iran. Archaeologische Mitteilungen aus Iran 24: 141–54.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 1993. Rechtskasuistik und Gerichtspraxis zu Beginn des siebenten Jahrhunderts in Iran: Die Rechtsammlung des Farroḫmard i Wahrāmān. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 1995. Herrschaftskonsolidierung und sasanidische Familienrecht: zum Verhältnis von Kirche und Staat unter den Sasaniden. In Reck, Christiane and Zieme, Peter, eds., Iran und Turfan: Beiträge Berliner Wissenschaftler, Werner Sundermann zum 60. Geburtstag gewidmet. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 149–67.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 2005. Language and Law: Linguistic Peculiarities in Sasanian Jurisprudence. In Weber, Dieter, ed., Languages of Iran: Past and Present—Iranian Studies in Memoriam David Neil Mackenzie. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 95–108.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 2006. The Function of Temporary Marriage in the Context of Sasanian Family Law. In Panaino, Antonion and Piras, Andrea, eds., Proceedings of the Fifth Conference of the Societas Iranologica Europaea, Volume I: Ancient and Middle Iranian Studies. Milan: Mimesis, 585–97.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 2008. Zur juristischen Terminologie der Berliner Pahlavi-Dokumente. In Weber, Dieter, ed., Berliner Pahlavi-Dokumente: Zeugnisse spätsassanidischer Brief-und Rechtskultur aus frühislamischer Zeit. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 249–66.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 2009. Pahlavi Literature. In Emmerick, Ronald E. and Macuch, Maria, eds., The Literature of Pre-Islamic Iran: Companion Volume I to A History of Persian Literature. London: I. B. Tauris, 116–96.Google Scholar
Macuch, Maria. 2010. Incestuous Marriage in the Context of Sasanian Family Law. In Macuch, Maria, Weber, Dieter, and Durkin-Meisterernst, Desmond, eds., Ancient and Middle Iranian Studies: Proceedings of the Sixth European Conference of Iranian Studies. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 133–48.Google Scholar
Mardirossian, Aram. 2004. Le livre des canons arméniens (Kanonagirkc Hayocc) de Yovhannēs Awjnecʿi: Église, droit, et société en Arménie du IVe au VIIIe siècle. Louvain: Peeters.Google Scholar
McDonough, Scott. 2011. The Legs of the Throne: Kings, Elites, and Subjects in Sassanian Iran. In Arnason, Johann P. and Raaflaub, Kurt A., eds., The Roman Empire in Context: Historical and Comparative Perspectives. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 290–321.Google Scholar
Melville, Sarah C. 2004. Neo-Assyrian Royal Women and Male Identity: Status as a Social Tool. Journal of the American Oriental Society 124: 37–57.Google Scholar
Nikonorov, Valery P. K. 2005. Voprosu o Parfyanskom Nasledii v Sasanidskom Irane: Voennoe Delo. In Nikonorov, Valery P. K., ed., Tsentralnaya Aziya ot Akhemenidov do Timuridov: Arkheologiya, Istoriya, Etnologiya, Kultura. St. Petersburg: Institut Istorii Materialnoi Kulturi, 141–79.Google Scholar
Ogden, Daniel. 1999. Polygamy, Prostitutes and Death: The Hellenistic Dynasties. London: Duckworth.Google Scholar
Parpola, Simo. 2012. The Neo-Assyrian Royal Harem. In Lanfranchi, Giovanni B., et al. , eds., Leggo! Studies Presented to Frederick Mario Fales on the Occasion of his 65th Birthday. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 613–26.Google Scholar
Payne, Richard. 2013. Cosmology and the Expansion of the Iranian Empire, 502–628 CE. Past and Present 220: 3–33.Google Scholar
Payne, Richard. 2015a. A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture in Late Antiquity. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Payne, Richard. 2015b. East Syrian Bishops, Elite Households, and Iranian Law after the Muslim Conquest. Iranian Studies 48: 5–32.Google Scholar
Payne, Richard. 2015c. The Reinvention of Iran: The Sasanian Empire and the Huns. In Maas, Michael, ed., The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Attila. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 282–99.Google Scholar
Payne, Richard. n.d. (forthcoming 2016). Territorializing Iran: Autocracy, Aristocracy, and the Geographical Infrastructure of Empire in Late Antiquity. In Ando, Clifford and Richardson, Seth, eds., Infrastructural and Despotic Power in Ancient States. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Perikhanian, Anahit. 1983. Obshchestvo i Pravo Irana v Parfyanskii i Sasanidskii Periodi. Moscow: Izdatelstvo Nauka.Google Scholar
Pomeroy, Emma, et al. 2015. Relationships of Maternal and Paternal Anthropometry with Neonatal Body Size, Proportions and Adiposity in an Australian Cohort. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 156: 625–36.Google Scholar
Pourshariati, Parvaneh. 2008. Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran. London: I. B. Tauris.Google Scholar
Rogers, Lesley. 2001. Sexing the Brain. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Roth, Martha. 1987. Age at Marriage and the Household: A Study of Neo-Assyrian Neo-Babylonian Forms. Comparative Studies in Society and History 29: 715–47.Google Scholar
Rowlandson, Jane and Takahashi, Ryosuke. 2009. Brother Sister Marriage and Inheritance Strategies in Greco-Roman Egypt. Journal of Roman Studies 99: 104–39.Google Scholar
Rubin, Zeev. 2000. The Sassanid Monarchy. In Cameron, Averil, et al. , eds., Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 14, Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A.D. 425–600. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 638–61.Google Scholar
Rubin, Zeev. 2004. Nobility, Monarchy and Legitimation under the Later Sasanians. In Haldon, John and Conrad, Lawrence I., eds., The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East, Volume VI, Elites Old and New in the Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East. Princeton: Darwin Press, 235–73.Google Scholar
Saller, Richard. 1994. Patriarchy, Property, and Death in the Roman Family. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Scheidel, Walter. 1999. Emperors, Aristocrats, and the Grim Reaper: Toward a Demographic Profile of the Roman Élite. Classical Quarterly 49: 254–81.Google Scholar
Scheidel, Walter. 2001. Progress and Problems in Roman Demography. In Scheidel, Walter, ed., Debating Roman Demography. Leiden: Brill, 1–81.Google Scholar
Scheidel, Walter. 2004. Demographic and Economic Development in the Ancient Mediterranean World. Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 160: 743–57.Google Scholar
Scheidel, Walter. 2007. Roman Funerary Commemoration and the Age at First Marriage. Classical Philology 102: 389–402.Google Scholar
Scheidel, Walter. 2009a. Sex and Empire: A Darwinian Perspective. In Morris, Ian and Scheidel, Walter, eds., The Dynamics of Ancient Empires: State Power from Assyria to Byzantium. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 255–324.Google Scholar
Scheidel, Walter. 2009b. A Peculiar Institution? Greco-Roman Monogamy in Global Context. History of the Family 14: 280–91.Google Scholar
Scheidel, Walter. 2011. Monogamy and Polygyny. In Rawson, Beryl, ed., A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 108–15.Google Scholar
Shaked, Shaul. 1990. Administrative Functions of Priests in the Sasanian Period. In Gnoli, Gherardo and Panaino, Antonio, eds., Proceedings of the First European Conference of Iranian Studies, Part I, Old and Middle Iranian Studies. Rome: Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente, 261–73.Google Scholar
Shaked, Shaul. 2008. Religion in the Late Sasanian Period: Eran, Aneran, and other Religious Designations. In Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah, eds., The Sasanian Era: The Idea of Iran Volume III. London: I. B. Tauris, 103–17.Google Scholar
Shaked, Shaul. 2010. Human Identity and Classes of People in the Pahlavi Books. In Cereti, Carlo G., ed., Iranian Identity in the Course of History: Proceedings of the Conference Held in Rome, 21–24 September 2005. Rome: Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, 331–45.Google Scholar
Shaw, Brent D. 1987. The Age of Roman Girls and Marriage: Some Reconsiderations. Journal of Roman Studies 77: 30–46.Google Scholar
Silk, Jonathan. 2008. Putative Persian Perversities: Buddhist Condemnations of Zoroastrian Close-Kin Marriage in Context. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 71: 433–64.Google Scholar
Simpson, St. John and Molleson, Theya. 2014. Old Bones Overturned: New Evidence for Funerary Practices from the Sasanian Empire. In Fletcher, A., Antoine, D., and Hill, J. D., eds., Regarding the Dead: Human Remains in the British Museum. London: British Museum Press, 77–90.Google Scholar
Sohn, Peter. 1996. Die Medizin des Zādsparam: Anatomie, Physiologie und Psychologie in den Wizīdagīhā ī Zādsparam, einer zoroastrisch-mittelpersischen Anthologie aus dem frühislamischen Iran des neunten Jahrhunderts. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.Google Scholar
Steckel, Richard H. 1995. Stature and the Standard of Living. Journal of Economic Literature 33: 1903–40.Google Scholar
Steckel, Richard H. 2004. New Light on the ‘Dark Ages’: The Remarkably Tall Stature of Northern European Men during the Medieval Era. Social Science History 28: 211–28.Google Scholar
Steckel, Richard H. and Prince, Joseph M.. 2001. Tallest in the World: Native Americans of the Great Plains in the Nineteenth Century. American Economic Review 91: 287–94.Google Scholar
Traina, Giusto. 2012. L'empire chrétien et l'inceste oriental. In Badel, Christophe and Settipani, Christian, eds., Les stratégies familiales dans l'antiquité tardive. Paris: De Boccard, 167–79.Google Scholar
Voss, Barbara L. 2008a. Domesticating Imperialism: Sexual Politics and the Archaeology of Empire. American Anthropologist 110: 191–203.Google Scholar
Voss, Barbara L. 2008b. Sexuality Studies in Archaeology. Annual Review of Anthropology 37, 317–36.Google Scholar
Walker, Joel. 2006. The Legend of Mar Qardagh: Narrative and Christian Heroism in Late Antique Iraq. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Wallace-Hadrill, Andrew. 1981. Family and Inheritance in the Augustan Marriage Laws. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 27: 58–80.Google Scholar
Widengren, Geo. 1967. Der Feudalismus im alten Iran: Männerbund, Gefolgswesen, Feudalismus in der iranischen Gesellschaft im Hinblick auf die indogermanischen Verhältnisse. Cologne and Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.Google Scholar
Wiesehöfer, Josef. 2010. The Late Sasanian Near East. In Robinson, Chase, ed., The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume I: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 98–152.Google Scholar
Wittke, Anne-Maria. 2010. Exogamie, Hypergamie, Polygamie: Heiraten in Zeugnissen des frühen 1. Jahrtausends v. Chr. zu Kleinasien. In Rollinger, Robert, et al. , eds., Interkulturalität in der alten Welt: Vorderasien, Hellas, Ägypten und die vielfältigen Ebenen des Kontakts. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, 451–69.Google Scholar
Xue, Yali et al. 2003. The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols. American Journal of Human Genetics 72: 717–21.Google Scholar