Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T05:43:15.655Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Female employment and infant mortality: some evidence from British towns, 1911, 1931 and 1951

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 January 2009

Abstract

Image of the first page of this content. For PDF version, please use the ‘Save PDF’ preceeding this image.'
Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1994

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ENDNOTES

1 See, for example, Appendix I in Tennant, M., ‘Infantile mortality’, in Tuckwell, G. M. ed., Women in industry (London, 1908)Google Scholar; Thompson, B., ‘Infant mortality in nineteenth century Bradford’, in Woods, R. and Woodward, J. eds., Urban disease and mortality in nineteenth century England (London, 1984)Google Scholar; and Soloway, R. A., Birth control and the population question in England 1877–1930 (Chapel Hill, 1982).Google Scholar

2 For example, Cadbury, E., Matheson, M. C. and Shann, G., Women's work and wages (London, 1906)Google Scholar; City of Birmingham Health Department, Report on industrial employment of married women and infantile mortality (Birmingham, 1910)Google Scholar; Taylor, W. Cooke, ‘The employment of married women in manufacture’, National Association for the Promotion of Social Science, Transactions (1873), 605–13Google Scholar; Taylor, W. Cooke, ‘The employment of mothers in manufacture’, National Association for the Promotion of Social Science, Transactions (1874), 569–94Google Scholar; Jevons, W. S., ‘Married women in factories’, in Jevons, W. S., ed., Methods of social reform and other papers (London, 1883)Google Scholar; Tennant, M., ‘Infant mortality and factory labour’, in Oliver, T. ed., Dangerous trades (London, 1902)Google Scholar; and Smyth, A. Watt, Physical deterioration: its causes and the cures (London, 1904).Google Scholar

3 Jones, H. R., ‘The perils and protection of infant life’, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 57 (1894), 3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

4 Rogers, J. S. Y., ‘The case of the children’, in British Association Handbook (Dundee, 1912), 55.Google Scholar

5 Quoted in Roberts, E., ‘Working wives and their families’, in Barker, T. and Drake, M. eds., Population and society in Britain 1850–1980 (London, 1982), 155–6.Google Scholar

6 Gorst, J. E., The children of the nation (London, 1906), 19.Google Scholar

7 Dwork, D., War is good for babies and other young children (London, 1987), 35.Google Scholar

8 Reid, G., ‘Report of proceedings of public medicine section of annual general meeting of British Medical Association’, British Medical Journal (1892), 275–8.Google Scholar Reid continued with this view through to the twentieth century. See, for example, Reid, G., ‘Infant mortality and factory labour’, in Oliver, ed., Dangerous tradesGoogle Scholar, and Reid, G., ‘Infant mortality and the employment of married women in factory labour before and after confinement’, The Lancet 2 (1906), 423–4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

9 See, for example, Newman, G., Infant mortality: a social problem (London, 1906)Google Scholar; Appendix I in Tennant, , ‘Infantile mortality’, 93110Google Scholar; Stewart, A., ‘A note on the obstetric effects of work during pregnancy’, British Journal of Preventive and Social Medicine 9 (1955), 159–61Google ScholarPubMed; Jephcott, P., Seear, N. and Smith, J. H., Married women working (London, 1962)Google Scholar; Adelstein, A. M., Alberman, E. D. and Barrett, J. C., ‘Environmental influences on stillbirths and infant mortality’, in Child health: a collection of studies (Studies on Medical and Population Subjects no. 31; London, 1976)Google Scholar; McDowall, M., Goldblatt, P. O. and Fox, A. J., ‘Employment during pregnancy and infant mortality’, Population Trends 26 (1981), 1215.Google Scholar

10 National Conference on Infantile Mortality, Report of the proceedings (London, 1906)Google Scholar; National Conference on Infantile Mortality, Report of the proceedings (London, 1908).Google Scholar

11 English-Speaking Conference on Infant Mortality, Report of the proceedings of the National Association for the Prevention of Infant Mortality and for the Welfare of Infancy (London, 1913)Google Scholar; National Conference on Infant Mortality, Report of the proceedingss of the National Association for the Prevention of Infant Mortality and for the Welfare of Infancy (London, 1914).Google Scholar For example, Registrar-General (Scotland), Fifty-seventh annual report, 1911 (Cd-7332) (Glasgow, 1914), xxxviiiGoogle Scholar, or Registrar-General, Census of England and Wales, 1911, Volume 13: Fertility of marriage, part 2 (London, 1923), cxvi.Google Scholar

12 See, for example, Collet, C., ‘The collection and utilization of official statistics bearing on the extent and effects of the industrial employment of women’, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 61 (1898), 219–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Anon., ‘Infantile mortality and the employment of married women in factories’, The Lancet 2 (1906), 817–18Google Scholar; editorial, The industrial employment of women and infant mortality’, Public Health 23 (1910), 229Google Scholar; Elkin, W., ‘Manchester’, in Black, C. ed., Married women's work (London, 1915)Google Scholar; Mackenzie, W. L., Scottish mothers and children (Dunfermline, 1917)Google Scholar; Campbell, J. M., ‘Infant mortality’, Ministry of Health Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects, 55 (London, 1929)Google Scholar; Woolf, B., ‘Studies on infant mortality, part 2: Social aetiology of stillbirths and infant deaths in county boroughs of England and Wales’, British Journal of Social Medicine 1 (1947), 73125.Google Scholar

13 Roberts, , ‘Working wives’, 162Google Scholar; Jones, , ‘The perils’ (discussion), 102.Google Scholar

14 English-Speaking Conference on Infant Mortality, Report, 385, 151.Google Scholar

15 For example, Collet, , ‘The collection’Google Scholar; Medical Research Committee, ‘The mortalities of birth, infancy and childhood’, Special Report Series, 10 (London, 1917)Google Scholar; Dyhouse, C., ‘Working-class mothers and infant mortality in England 1895–1914’, Journal of Social History 12 (1978), 248–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

16 Hedger, C., ‘The relation of infant mortality to the occupation and long hours of work for women’, Bulletin of the American Academy of Medicine 11 (1910), 82.Google Scholar

17 Infant mortality and neglect were often used by ‘reformers’ to prevent married women from working outside the home. However, much of the rhetoric was based on issues of mortality or male wages. For example, Lady Dilke, in her preface to Bulley, A. A. and Whitley, M., Women's work (London, 1894)Google Scholar, suggested that married working women should be returned to their ‘posts of honour as queens of the hearth’ (p. xiii). Trades unionists were urged to encourage married women ‘to stay at home to be what nature intended them to be- viz housewives’ (quoted in Woodhouse, T., ‘The working class’, in Fraser, D. ed., A history of modern Leeds (Manchester, 1980), 378).Google Scholar See also Tuckwell, G. M., ‘The regulation of women's work’, in Tuckwell, , Women in industryGoogle Scholar, and Harben, H. D., ‘The endowment of motherhood’, Fabian Tracts, 149 (London, 1910).Google Scholar

18 For example, Ashby, H. T., Infant mortality (Cambridge, 1915)Google Scholar; Blagg, H. M., Statistical analysis of infant mortality and its causes in the United Kingdom (London, 1910)Google Scholar; and Balfour, M. I., ‘The effect of occupation on pregnancy and neonatal mortality’, Public Health 51 (1938), 106–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

19 Rose, L., The massacre of the innocents: infanticide in Britain 1800–1939 (London, 1986), 9.Google Scholar

20 Woolf, B., ‘Social conditions and infant mortality’, Mother and Child 15 (1944), 3842Google Scholar; Woolf, B. and Waterhouse, J., ‘Studies on infant mortality, part 1: influence of social conditions in county boroughs of England and Wales’, Journal of Hygiene 44 (1945), 6798.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

21 Editorial, Infant mortality and social conditions’, British Medical Journal 2 (1945), 392–3CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Brennan, M. E. and Lancashire, R., ‘Association of childhood mortality with housing status and unemployment’, Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 32 (1978), 2833.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

22 Buckatzsch, E. J., ‘The influence of social conditions on mortality rates’, Population Studies 1 (1947), 229–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

23 Dyhouse, , ‘Working-class mothers’, Appendix, 263.Google Scholar

24 Hughes, G. S., Mothers in industry (New York, 1925).Google Scholar

25 Kronenburg, M. H., ‘Women in industry’, Industrial Medicine 7 (1938), 569–76.Google Scholar

26 Blagg, , Statistical analysis, 19.Google Scholar

27 Hitchon, H. H. I., ‘The employment of married women in factories’, Public Health 27 (1914), 114–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

28 Oliver, T., Lead poisoning: from the industrial, medical and social point of view (London, 1914)Google Scholar; National Birth-rate Commission, The declining birth-rate: its causes and effects (London, 1917).Google Scholar

29 Reid, , ‘Infant mortality and the employment of married women’, 424.Google Scholar

30 Newman, , Infant mortality, 61.Google Scholar

31 Registrar-General, Statistical review of England and Wales, 1934 (new annual series no. 14), text (London, 1936), Table CXIX.Google Scholar

32 Benjamin, B., Social and economic factors affecting mortality (The Hague, 1965).Google Scholar

33 Gorst, , The children, 19Google Scholar; Kerr, J. M. Munro, Johnstone, R. W. and Phillips, M. H. eds., Historical review of British obstetrics and gynaecology 1800–1950 (Edinburgh, 1954).Google Scholar

34 Lambert, P., ‘Perinatal mortality: social and environmental factors’, Population Trends 4 (1976), 48.Google Scholar

35 Campbell, R., Davies, I. Macdonald and Macfarlane, A., ‘Perinatal mortality and place of delivery’, Population Trends 28 (1982), 912.Google Scholar

36 Mackenzie, , Scottish mothers, 149.Google Scholar

37 Quoted in Lewenhak, S., Women and trade unions (London, 1977), 215.Google Scholar

38 Woolf, and Waterhouse, , ‘Studies on infant mortality, part 1’, 72.Google Scholar

39 Davies, I. Macdonald, ‘Perinatal and infant deaths: social and biological factors’, Population Trends 19 (1980), 1921.Google Scholar

40 Registrar-General, Seventy-fourth annual report of births, deaths and marriages in England and Wales, 1911 (Cd-6578) (London, 1913), xlii.Google Scholar

41 Hitchon, , ‘The employment of married women’, 116.Google Scholar

42 Department of Health for Scotland, Infant mortality in Scotland. The report of the subcommittee of the scientific advisory committee (Edinburgh, 1943)Google Scholar; Woolf, , ‘Studies on infant mortality, part 2, 93.Google Scholar

43 Morris, J. N. and Heady, J. A., ‘Social and biological factors in infant mortality, V: objects and methods’, The Lancet 1 (1955), 343–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

44 Adelstein, A. M., Davies, I. H. Macdonald and Weatherall, J. A. C., ‘Perinatal and infant mortality: social and biological factors 1975–1977’, Studies on Medical and Population Subjects, 41 (London, 1980)Google Scholar; Hair, P. E., ‘Children in society’, in Barker, and Drake, , Population and society, 39.Google Scholar

45 For example, Dundee Social Union, Report on housing and industrial conditions (Dundee, 1905)Google Scholar; Ashby, , Infant mortality, 31Google Scholar; Baetjer, A., Women in industry (Philadelphia, 1946)Google Scholar; Douglas, J. W. B., ‘Some factors associated with prematurity’, Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the British Empire 57 (1950), 143–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

46 Department of Health for Scotland, Infant mortality in Scotland, 18.Google Scholar

47 Ministry of Health, ‘Neonatal mortality and morbidity’, Reports on Public Health and Medical Subjects, 94 (London, 1949), p. 76.Google Scholar

48 For example, Jevons, , ‘Married women’, 163Google Scholar; Jones, , ‘The perils’Google Scholar, Wilson, H. J., ‘Jute’, in Oliver, ed., Dangerous trades, 662Google Scholar; Reid, , ‘Infant mortality’, 424Google Scholar; Ashby, , Infant mortality, 26.Google Scholar

49 National Conference on Infant Mortality (1908), Report, 21.Google Scholar

50 Blagg, , Statistical analysis, 28.Google Scholar

51 Ashby, H. T. and Roberts, C., The diseases of children medical and surgical (London, 1922).Google Scholar

52 Edouard, L. and Alberman, E., ‘National trends in the certified causes of perinatal mortality 1968–1978’, British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 87 (1980), 833–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

53 Crew, F. A. E., Measurements of the public health (Edinburgh, 1948), 222.Google Scholar

54 See, for instance, Abraham, M. E., ‘Conditions of work in the white lead industry’, in Royal Commission on Labour, Employment of women, reports (C-6894-XXIII-IID) (London, 1893)Google Scholar; Bulley, and Whitley, , Women's work, 130–3Google Scholar; and Ballantyne, J. W., ‘The nature of pregnancy and its practical bearings’, British Medical Journal 1 (1914), 349–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

55 Oliver, T., ‘Lead and its compounds’, in Oliver, ed., Dangerous tradesGoogle Scholar; Oliver, T., Occupations: from the social, hygienic and medical points of view (Cambridge, 1916)Google Scholar; Shane, B. S., ‘Human reproductive hazards: evaluation and chemical etiology’, Environmental Science and Technology 23 (1989), 1187–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

56 Kronenberg, , ‘Women in industry’, 572.Google Scholar

57 For example, Meaker, S. J., ‘A preliminary note on dysmenorrhoea as an industrial problem’, Journal of Industrial Hygiene 4 (1922), 4952Google Scholar; Adamson, R. H. B., ‘The health of women and girls in relation to industry’, Journal of State Medicine 37 (1929), 107–13Google Scholar; Burnell, M. R., ‘Women in industry’, Industrial Medicine 11 (1942), 282–3.Google Scholar

58 For example, Deane, L. A. E., ‘Laundry workers’, in Oliver, ed., Dangerous trades, 669Google Scholar; J. A. E. Stuart, ‘Rags and their products’, Ibid., 645; Hedger, , ‘The relation of infant mortality’, 82Google Scholar; and Hitchon, ‘The employment of married women’, 115.Google Scholar

59 Meacham, S., A life apart: the English working class 1890–1914 (London, 1977), 107.Google Scholar

60 Oliver, , Occupations, 78.Google Scholar

61 McLaren, A., ‘Women's work and regulation of family size: the question of abortion in the nineteenth century’, History Workshop Journal 4 (1977), 7081.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

62 Registrar-General, Decennial supplement, 1931, part IIa: Occupational mortality (London, 1938), Table 2.Google Scholar

63 Robinson, J., ‘Cancer of the cervix: occupational risk of husbands and wives and possible preventive strategies’, in Jordan, J. A. et al. eds., Pre-clinical neoplasia of the cervix (London, 1982).Google Scholar

64 Bowley, A. L. and Hogg, M. H., Has poverty diminished? (London, 1925).Google Scholar

65 Mackie, L. and Patullo, P., Women at work (London, 1977)Google Scholar; Forman, C., Industrial town: self portrait of St Helens in the 1920s (London, 1978).Google Scholar

66 Denning, J., ‘The hazards of women's work’, New Scientist (01 17, 1985), 1215Google Scholar; Shane, , ‘Human reproductive hazards’, 1190.Google Scholar

67 See, for example, Jones, , ‘The perils’, 56Google Scholar, and Forbes, T. R., ‘Deadly parents: child homicide in eighteenth and nineteenth century England’, Journal of the History of Medicine 41 (1986), 175–99.Google ScholarPubMed

68 Rogers, , ‘The case of the children’, 56.Google Scholar

69 Lithell, U.-B., ‘Breast-feeding habits and their relation to infant mortality and marital fertility’, Journal of Family History 6 (1981), 182–94.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

70 See, for example, Baines, M. A., ‘On the prevention of excessive infant mortality’, Transactions of the Manchester Statistical Society, Session 1868–69 (1868), 120Google Scholar; Newman, , Infant mortality, 227Google Scholar; Harben, , ‘The endowment’, 22.Google Scholar

71 Registrar-General, Seventy-fourth annual report, xlii.Google Scholar

72 Campbell, , ‘Infant mortality’, 106Google Scholar; Joint Committee of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists and the Population Investigation Committee, Maternity in Great Britain (London, 1948).Google Scholar

73 For example, Jones, , ‘The perils’, 67Google Scholar; Tennant, , ‘Infant mortality’, 78Google Scholar; and Cartwright, F. F., A social history of medicine (London, 1977).Google Scholar

74 Registrar-General, Fifty-first report of births, deaths and marriages in England, 1888 (Cd-5846) (London, 1889), xviiGoogle Scholar; Registrar-General, Fifty-third report of births, deaths and marriages in England, 1890 (Cd-6478) (London, 1891), Table FGoogle Scholar; Jones, , ‘The perils’ 41.Google Scholar

75 Templeman, C., ‘Two hundred and fifty-eight cases of suffocation of infants’, Transactions of the Medico-Chirugical Society of Edinburgh, New Series 11 (1892), 210–17.Google ScholarPubMed

76 Walker, W., ‘Infant suffocation - historical myth?’, Scottish Economic and Social History 8 (1988), 5672.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

77 Registrar-General (Scotland), Fifty-seventh annual report, 1911 (Cd-7332) (Glasgow, 1914).Google Scholar

78 See, for example, Woolf, , ‘Social conditions’, 40Google Scholar; Woolf, , ‘Studies on infant mortality, part 2’, 73Google Scholar; and Woolf, and Waterhouse, , ‘Studies on infant mortality, part 1’, 83.Google Scholar

79 Buckatsch, , ‘The influence’, 234.Google Scholar

80 See, for example, Damme, C., ‘Infanticide: the worth of an infant under law’, Medical History 22 (1978), 124CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Forbes, , ‘Deadly parents’, 187Google Scholar; and Rose, ,‘The massacre’, 174.Google Scholar

81 Richards, H. M., ‘The factors which determine the local incidence of fatal infantile diarrhoea’, Journal of Hygiene 3 (1903), 325–46CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Pinchbeck, I. and Hewitt, M., Children in English society, volume 2 (London, 1973).Google Scholar

82 Registrar-General, Statistical review of England and Wales, 1935 (new annual series no. 15), text (London, 1938).Google Scholar

83 Department of Health for Scotland, Infant mortality in Scotland, 31.Google Scholar This was also found by the Ministry of Health (‘Neonatal mortality’, 21)Google Scholar and Aykroyd, W. R. and Kevany, J. P., ‘Mortality in infancy and early childhood in Ireland, Scotland and England and Wales’, Ecology of Food and Nutrition 2 (1973), 1119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

84 Registrar-General, Census of England and Wales, 1911, cxiv–cxvi.Google Scholar

85 Registrar-General (Scotland), Fifty-seventh annual report, 1911, xxxvii.Google Scholar

86 Stevenson, T. H. C., ‘Suggested lines of advance in English vital statistics’, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 73 (1910), 685702.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

87 Collet, , ‘The collection’, 235.Google Scholar Type of employment was also stressed by the English-Speaking Conference on Infant Mortality, Report, 378, 380Google Scholar; City of Birmingham Health Department, ‘Report’, 20; Ashby, , Infant mortality, 59Google Scholar; Elkin, , ‘Manchester’, 161Google Scholar; and Blagg, , Statistical analysis, 10.Google Scholar

88 Routh, A., ‘Ante-natal hygiene: its influence upon infantile mortality’, British Medical Journal 1 (1914), 355–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

89 Hedger, , ‘The relation of infant mortality’, 84Google Scholar; Balfour, , ‘The effect of occupation’, 110.Google Scholar

90 Richards, , ‘The factors’, 338Google Scholar; Local Government Board, Public health and social conditions: statistical memoranda and charts (London, 1909).Google Scholar

91 Newman, , Infant mortality, 109.Google Scholar

92 Hutchins, B. L., Women in modern industry (London, 1915).Google Scholar

93 Brenner, M. H., ‘Fetal, infant, and maternal mortality during periods of economic instability’, International Journal of Health Services 3 (1973), 145–59CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed; Mitchell, M., ‘The effects of unemployment on the social condition of women and children in the 1930s’, History Workshop Journal 19 (1985), 105–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

94 Spicer, C. C. and Lipworth, L., ‘Regional and social factors in infant mortality’, GRO Studies on Medicine and Population Subjects, 19 (London, 1966).Google Scholar

95 Charles, E., The practice of birth control (London, 1932).Google Scholar

96 Gilliat, W., ‘Maternal mortality, stillbirth and neonatal mortality’, in Kerr, Munro et al. , Historical review, 267Google Scholar; Taylor, W., ‘The changing patterns of mortality in England and Wales I, infant mortality’, British Journal of Preventive and Social Medicine 8 (1954), 19.Google Scholar

97 Editorial, ‘Infant mortality’, 392Google Scholar; Morris, and Heady, , ‘Social and biological factors’, 343Google Scholar; Winter, J. M., ‘Infant mortality, maternal mortality and public health in Britain in the 1930s’, Journal of European Economic History 8 (1979), 439–62.Google Scholar

98 Beaver, M. W., ‘Population, infant mortality and milk’, Population Studies 27 (1973), 243–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

99 See, for example, Mackenzie, , Scottish mothers, 177Google Scholar; Brennan, and Lancashire, , ‘Association’, 32Google Scholar; Newman, , Infant mortality, 216Google Scholar; McKinlay, P. L., ‘Some statistical aspects of infant mortality’, Journal of Hygiene 28 (1929), 394417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

100 Ministry of Health, ‘Neonatal mortality’, 6Google Scholar; Heady, J. A. and Daly, C., ‘Social and biological factors in infant mortality II: variations of mortality with mother's age and parity’, The Lancet 1 (1955), 395–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Winter, J. M., ‘The impact of the first world war on civilian health in Britain’, Economic History Journal 30 (1977), 487507.Google ScholarPubMed

101 Benjamin, B., Population statistics: a review of UK sources (Aldershot, 1989).Google Scholar

102 Knox, P. L., ‘Convergence and divergence in regional patterns of infant mortality in the United Kingdom from 1949–51 to 1970–72’, Social Science and Medicine 15D (1981), 323–8.Google Scholar

103 Adelstein, et al. ,‘Perinatal’, 18Google Scholar; Heady, J. A. and Heasman, M. A., ‘Social and biological factors in infant mortality’, GRO Studies on Medical and Population Subjects, 115 (London, 1959).Google Scholar

104 Holland, E. L.Lane-Claypon, J. E., ‘A clinical and pathological study of 1,673 cases of dead-births and neo-natal deaths’, Medical Research Council Special Reports, 109 (London, 1926).Google Scholar

105 Richards, I. D. Gerald, ‘Infant mortality in Scotland’, Scottish Health Service Studies, 16 (Edinburgh, 1971).Google Scholar

106 Robinson, W. S., ‘Ecological correlations and the behavior of individuals’, American Sociological Review 15 (1950), 351–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

107 Duncan, J. Matthews, Fecundity, fertility, sterility and allied topics (Edinburgh, 1871).Google Scholar

108 Bulley, and Whitley, , Women's work, 147.Google Scholar

109 Blalock, H. M., Causal inferences in nonexperimental research (Chapel Hill, 1964)Google Scholar; Goodman, L. A., ‘Some alternatives to ecological correlation’, American Journal of Sociology 64 (1959), 610–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

110 Menzel, H., ‘Comment on “Ecological correlations and the behavior of individuals”’, American Sociological Review 15 (1950), 674.Google Scholar

111 McKinlay, , ‘Some statistical aspects’, 402 Table X.Google Scholar

112 See, for example, Garrett, E. M., ‘The trials of labour: motherhood versus employment in a nineteenth-century textile centre’, Continuity and Change 5 (1990), 121–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and Terry, G. B., ‘The interrelationship between female employment and fertility: a secondary analysis of the growth of American families study 1960’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Florida State University, 1973).Google Scholar

113 Woolf, , ‘Studies on infant mortality, part 2’, 93, Table VII.Google Scholar

114 Graham, D. T., ‘Female employment patterns and urban socio-demographic structure in Great Britain, 1881–1981’ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Dundee, 1988).Google Scholar

115 Woolf, , ‘Studies on infant mortality, part 2’, 93, Table VII.Google Scholar

116 In 1911 FEMALE 1 included women working in the Civil Service, in hospitals, as teachers and as clerks in banks, commercial premises and law firms. FEMALE2 included domestic servants, laundry workers, drapers, shopkeepers and those keeping lodging and boarding houses plus those dealing in spiritous drinks. FEMALE3 included women in the manufacturing of dress, including boots and shoes. The male classification was similar, with MALE1 including professionals, merchants and clerks, MALE2 those in service and conveyance and MALE3 those in manufacturing in addition to those in mines and quarries. The classifications changed somewhat for 1931 and 1951 but preserved the same threefold division into professional and white-collar, service and manufacturing. For a full exposition of the classification scheme, see Graham, , ‘Female employment patterns’, 430–44.Google Scholar

117 See Cooper, J. and Bolting, B., ‘Analysing fertility and infant mortality by mother's social class as defined by occupation’, Population Trends 70 (1992), 1521.Google Scholar

118 McKinlay, , ‘Some statistical aspects’, 402, Table X.Google Scholar

119 Woolf, and Waterhouse, , ‘Studies on infant mortality, part 1’, 83.Google Scholar

120 Mitchell, , ‘The effects tof unemployment’, 105Google Scholar; Brenner, , ‘Fetal, infant, and maternal mortality’, 153.Google Scholar

121 Woolf, , ‘Studies on infant mortality, part 2’, 93, Table VII.Google Scholar

122 Winslow, M. N., ‘Married women in industry’, Journal of Social Hygiene 9 (1923), 385–95Google Scholar; Herring, H. L., ‘Working mothers and their children’, The Family 9 (1928), 234–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kronenberg, M. H., ‘Women in industry: their problems of health’, Industrial Medicine 11 (1942), 589–92Google Scholar; Kuh, C., ‘Women in industry’, Connecticut State Medical Journal 6 (1942), 754–5Google Scholar; Shane, , ‘Human reproductive hazards’, 1193Google Scholar; McDowall, et al. , ‘Employment during pregnancy’, 14.Google Scholar

123 Cooper, and Bolting, , ‘Analysing fertility’, 17.Google Scholar

124 Mitchell, ,‘The effects of unemployment’, 104Google Scholar; Jennings, S., Mazaik, C. and McKinlay, S., ‘Women and work: an investigation of the association between health and employment status in middle-aged women’, Social Science and Medicine 19 (1984), 423–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

125 Hartmann, H., ‘Capitalism, patriarchy and job segregation by sex’, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 3 (1976), 137–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

126 See, for example, Coote, A., ‘Fixing up the family’, New Statesman 20 (March 1981), 67Google Scholar; Marston, S. and Kirby, A., ‘The feminization of poverty’, paper given at the Institute of British Geographers Conference, Leeds, 1986Google Scholar; and Peattie, L. and Rein, M., Women's claims: a study in political economy (New York, 1983).Google Scholar

127 Shane, , ‘Human reproductive hazards’, 1188Google Scholar; McDowall, et al. , ‘Employment during pregnancy’, 13.Google Scholar