Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T08:58:22.223Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Disinhibition and borderline personality disorder

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 December 2005

JOEL T. NIGG ,
KENNETH R. SILK ,
GILLIAN STAVRO  and
TORRI MILLER
JOEL T. NIGG
Affiliation:
Michigan State University
KENNETH R. SILK
Affiliation:
University of Michigan
GILLIAN STAVRO
Affiliation:
Michigan State University
TORRI MILLER
Affiliation:
Michigan State University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We review different conceptions of inhibitory control that may be relevant to the regulatory problems featured in borderline personality disorder (BPD). These conceptions have often been framed with regard to personality traits of inhibitory control, but can also be related to cognitive measures of response suppression as well as affect regulation. Reactive behavioral inhibition is relatively unstudied in relation to BPD. A substantial amount of literature links executive function problems with BPD, but that literature has not isolated executive response inhibition nor been controlled for other personality disorder symptoms of antisociality, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), or depression, anxiety, or posttraumatic symptoms. We therefore conducted a study of this question looking at BPD symptoms in an adult sample with a small number of BPD subjects and other disorders. Results indicated that symptoms of BPD were correlated with response inhibition (measured by stop signal reaction time) even after controlling for the overlap of stop inhibition with ADHD, antisociality, and other Axis II disorder symptoms. We conclude by hypothesizing discrete developmental routes to BPD, based on different mechanism breakdowns, which would be amenable to empirical investigation at the cognitive or trait level of analysis.Portions of this work were supported by National Institute of Mental Health Grant R01-MH63146 (J.N., PI).

Type
Research Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 17 , Issue 4 , December 2005 , pp. 1129 - 1149
Copyright
© 2005 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Adler, G., & Buie, D. H., Jr. (1979). Aloneness and borderline psychopathology: The possible relevance of child development issues. International Journal of Psychoanalysis 60, 83–96.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Andrulonis, P. A., Glueck, B. C., Stroebel, C. F., Vogel, N. G., Shapiro, A. L., & Aldridge, D. M. (1981). Organic brain dysfunction and the borderline syndrome. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 4, 47–66.Google Scholar
Aron, A. R., Fletcher, P. C., Bullmore, E. T., Sahakian, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (2003). Stop signal inhibition disrupted by damage to right inferior frontal gyrus in humans. Nature Neuroscience 6, 115–116.Google Scholar
Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive function: Constructing a unified theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin 121, 65–94.Google Scholar
Bell, M. A., & Wolfe, C. D. (2004). Emotion and cognition: An intricately bound developmental process. Child Development 75, 366–370.Google Scholar
Bierer, L. M., Yehuda, R., Schmeidler, J., Mitropoulou, V., New, A. S., Silverman, J. M., et al. (2003). Abuse and neglect in childhood: Relationship to personality disorder diagnoses. CNS Spectrums 8, 737–754.Google Scholar
Casey, B. J., Tottenham, N., & Fossella, J. (2002). Clinical, imaging, lesion, and genetic approaches toward a model of cognitive control. Developmental Psychobiology 40, 237–254.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., McClay, J., Moffitt, T. E., Mill, J., Martin, J., Craig, I. W., et al. (2002). Role of the genotype in the cycle of violence in maltreated children. Science 297, 851–854.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (2002). The impact of social experience on neurobiological systems: Illustration from a constructivist view of child maltreatment. Cognitive Development 17, 1407–1428.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Dawson, G. (2002). Multiple levels of analysis. Development and Psychopathology 14, 417–420.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Lynch, M. (1995). Failures in the expectable environment and their impact on individual development: The case of child maltreatment. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 2. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (pp. 32–71). New York: Wiley.
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology 8, 597–600.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2001). Diverse patterns of neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children. Development ad Psychopathology 13, 677–693.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R. (1987). A systematic method for clinical description and classification of personality traits. Archives of General Psychiatry 44, 573–588.Google Scholar
Coccaro, E. F., Siever, L. J., Klar, H. M., Maurer, G., Cochrane, K., Cooper, T. B., et al. (1989). Serotonergic studies in patients with affective and personality disorders. Correlates with suicidal and impulsive aggressive behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry 46, 587–599.Google Scholar
Coolidge, F. L., Segal, D. L., Stewart, S. E., & Ellett, J. A. C. (2000). Neuropsychological dysfunction in children with borderline personality disorder features: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Research in Personality 34, 554–561.Google Scholar
Darlington, R. B. (1990). Regression and linear models. New York: McGraw–Hill.
Dempster, F. N. (1993). Resistence to interference: Developmental changes in a basic processing mechanism. In M. L. Howe & R. Pasnak (Eds.), Emerging themes in cognitive development: Vol. 1. Foundations (pp. 3–27). New York: Springer–Verlag.
Depue, R. A., & Collins, P. F. (1999). Neurobiology of the structure of personality: Dopamine, facilitation of incentive motivation, and extraversion. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 22, 491–569.Google Scholar
Depue, R. A., & Lenzenweger, M. F. (2001). A neurobehavioral dimensional model. In W. J. Livesley (Ed.), Handbook of personality disorders. Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 136–176). New York: Guilford Press.
Depue, R. A., & Lenzenweger, M. F. (2005). A neurobehavioral dimensional model of personality disturbance. In M. F. Lenzenweger & J. F. Clarkin (Eds.). Major theories of personality disorder (2nd ed., pp. 391–453). New York: Guilford Press.
Depue, R. A., & Spoont, M. R. (1986). Conceptualizing a serotonin trait: A behavioral dimension of constraint. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 487, 47–62.Google Scholar
Deutsch, H. (1942). Some forms of emotional disturbance and their relationship to schizophrenia. Psychoanalytic Quarterly 11, 301–321.Google Scholar
deVegvar, M. L., Siver, L. J., & Trestman, R. L. (1994). Impulsivity and serotonin in borderline personality disorder. In K. R. Silk (Ed.), Biological and neurobehavioral studies of borderline personality disorder (pp. 23–40). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Digman, J. M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model. Annual Review of Psychology 41, 417–440.Google Scholar
Donegan, N. H., Sanislow, C. A., Blumberg, H. P., Fulbright, R. K., Lacadie, C., Skuldlarski, P., et al. (2003). Amygdala hyperreactivity in borderline personality disorder: Implications for emotional dysregulation. Biological Psychiatry 54, 1284–1293.Google Scholar
Dowson, J., Bazanis, E., Rogers, R., Prevost, A., Taylor, P., Meux, C., et al. (2004). Impulsivity in patients with borderline personality disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry 45, 29–36.Google Scholar
Dowson, J. H., McLean, A., Bazanis, E., Toone, B., Young, S., Robbins, T. W., et al. (2004). Impaired spatial working memory in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Comparisons with performance in adults with borderline personality disorder and in control subjects. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 110, 45–54.Google Scholar
Driessen, M., Herrmann, J., Stahl, K., Zwaan, M., Meier, S., Hill, A., et al. (2000). Magnetic resonance imaging volumes of the hippocampus and the amygdala in women with borderline personality disorder and early traumatization. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 115–1122.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Sadovsky, A., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Losoya, S. H., Valiente, C., et al. (2005). The relations of problem behavior status to children's negative emotionality, effortful control, and impulsivity: Concurrent relations and prediction of change. Developmental Psychology 41, 193–211.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., & Spinrad, T. L. (2004). Emotion-related regulation: Sharpening the definition. Child Development 75, 334–339.Google Scholar
Eysenck, H. J. (1947). Dimensions of personality. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Eysenck, M. W., & Calvo, M. G. (1992). Anxiety and performance: The processing efficiency theory. Cognition and Emotion 6, 409–434.Google Scholar
Fairbairn, W. R. D. (1952). An object–relations theory of the personality. New York: Basic Books.
Faraone, S. V. (2000). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults: Implications for theories of diagnosis. Current Directions in Psychological Science 9, 33–36.Google Scholar
Fossatti, A., Madeddu, F., & Maffei, C. (1999). Borderline personality disorder and childhood sexual abuse: A meta-analytic study. Journal of Personality Disorders 13, 268–280.Google Scholar
Fossatti, A., Novella, L., Donati, D., Donini, M., & Maffei, C. (2002). History of childhood attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms and borderline personality disorder: A controlled study. Comprehensive Psychiatry 43, 369–377.Google Scholar
Frosch, J. (1964). The psychotic character: Clinical psychiatric considerations. Psychiatric Quarterly 38, 81–96.Google Scholar
Gorenstein, E. E., & Newman, J. P. (1980). Disinhibitory psychopathology: A new perspective and a model for research. Psychological Review 87, 301–315.Google Scholar
Gray, J. A. (1971). The psychobiology of fear and stress. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gray, J. A. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system. New York: Oxford University Press.
Gray, J. A. (1991). Neural systems, emotion, and personality. In J. Madden (Ed.), Neurobiology of learning, emotion, and affect (pp. 273–306). New York: Raven Press.
Grinker, R. R., Werble, B., & Drye, R. (1968). The borderline syndrome: A behavioral study of ego functions. New York: Basic Books.
Gunderson, J. G., & Singer, M. T. (1975). Defining borderline patients: An overview. American Journal of Psychiatry 132, 1–10.Google Scholar
Harnishfeger, K. K. (1995). The development of cognitive inhibition: Theories, definitions, and research evidence. In F. N. Dempster & C. J. Brainerd (Eds.), Interference and inhibition in cognition (pp. 175–204). New York: Academic Press.
Herman, J. L., & van der Kolk, B. A. (1987). Traumatic antecedents of borderline personality disorder. In B. A. van der Kolk (Ed.), Psychological trauma (pp. 116–126). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Hoch, P., & Polatin, P. (1949). Pseudoneurotic forms of schizophrenia. Psychiatric Quarterly 23, 248–276.Google Scholar
Jester, J. M., Nigg, J. T., Adams, K., Fitzgerald, H. E., Puttler, L. I., Wong, M. M., et al. (2005). Inattention/hyperactivity and aggression from early childhood to adolescence: Heterogeneity of trajectories and differential influence of family environment characteristics. Development and Psychopathology 17, 99–125.Google Scholar
Kagan, J. (1997). Temperament and the reactions to the unfamiliar. Child Development 68, 139–143.Google Scholar
Kagan, J., Resnick, J. S., & Snidman, N. (1987). The physiology of behavioral inhibition in children. Child Development 58, 1459–1473.Google Scholar
Kaufman, J., Yang, B. Z., Douglas–Palumberi, H., Houshyar, S., Lipschitz, D., Krystal, J. H., et al. (2004). Social supports and serotonin transporter gene moderate depression in maltreated children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101, 17316–17321.Google Scholar
Kernberg, O. (1967). Borderline personality organization. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 15, 641–685.Google Scholar
Kernberg, O. (1975). Borderline conditions and pathological narcissism. New York: Jason Aronson.
Kernberg, O. F. (1976). Object relations theory and clinical psychoanalysis. New York: Jason Aronson.
Kernberg, O. F. (1996). A psychoanalytic theory of personality disorders. In J. F. Clarkin & M. F. Lenzenweger (Eds.), Major theories of personality disorder (pp. 106–140). New York: Guilford Press.
Kernberg, O. F., & Caligor, E. (2005). A psychoanalytic theory of personality disorders. In M. F. Lenzenweger & J. F. Clarkin (Eds.), Major theories of personality disorder, second edition (pp. 114–156). New York: Guilford Press.
Klein, M. (1948). Contributions to psycho-analysis 1921–1945. London: Hogarth Press.
Knight, R. (1953). Borderline states. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic 17, 1–12.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Murray, K., & Harlan, E. (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology 36, 220–232.Google Scholar
Korfine, L., & Hooley, J. M. (2000). Directed forgetting of emotional stimuli in borderline personality disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 109, 214–221.Google Scholar
Kurtz, J. E., & Morey, L. C. (1998). Negativism in evaluative judgments of words among depressed outpatients with borderline personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders 12, 351–361.Google Scholar
Lahey, B. B., Waldman, I. D., & McBurnett, K. (1999). The development of antisocial behavior: An integrative causal model. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 40, 669–682.Google Scholar
Lenzenweger, M. F., Clarkin, J. F., Fertuck, E. A., & Kernberg, O. F. (2004). Executive neurcognitive functioning and neurobehavioral systems indicators in borderline personality disorder: A preliminary study. Journal of Personality Disorders 18, 421–438.Google Scholar
Livesley, W. J., Jang, K. L., & Vernon, P. A. (1998). Phenotypic and genetic structure of traits delineating personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 55, 941–948.Google Scholar
Logan, G. D. (1994). A user's guide to the stop signal paradigm. In D. Dagenbach & T. Carr (Eds.), Inhibition in language, memory, and attention (pp. 189–239). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Lynam, D., & Henry, B. (2001). The role of neuropsychological deficits in conduct disorders. In J. Hill & B. Maughan (Eds.), Conduct problems in childhood and adolescence (pp. 235–263). New York: Cambridge University Press.
MacCoon, D. G., Wallace, J. F., & Newman, J. P. (2004). Self-regulation: The context-appropriate allocation of attentional capacity to dominant and non-dominant cues. In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation research (pp. 422–444). New York: Guilford Press.
MacLeod, C. M., Dodd, M. D., Sheard, E. D., Wilson, D. E., & Bibi, U. (2003). In opposition to inhibition. In B. H. Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (pp. 163–214). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Mahler, M. S. (1972). On the first three subphases of the separation-individuation process. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 53, 333–338.Google Scholar
Masterson, J. F. (1972). Treatment of the borderline adolescent: A developmental approach. New York: Wiley.
Modell, A. H. (1963). Primitive object relationships and the predisposition to schizophrenia. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis 44, 282–292.Google Scholar
Morgan, A. B., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2000). A meta-analytic review of the relation between antisocial behavior and neuropsychological measures of executive functions. Clinical Psychology Review 20, 113–136.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T. (1999). The ADHD response inhibition deficit as measured by the Stop Task: Replication with DSM-IV combined type, extension, and qualification. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 27, 391–400.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T. (2000). On inhibition/disinhibition in developmental psychopathology: Views from cognitive and personality psychology and a working inhibition taxonomy. Psychological Bulletin 126, 220–246.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T. (2001). Is ADHD an inhibitory disorder? Psychological Bulletin 127, 571–598.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T. (2003). Response inhibition and disruptive behaviors: Toward a multi-process conception of etiological heterogeneity for ADHD combined type and conduct disorder early onset type. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1008, 170–182.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T., Carte, E., Hinshaw, S. P., & Treuting, J. (1998). Neuropsychological correlates of antisocial behavior and comorbid disruptive behavior disorders in children with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 107, 468–480.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T., & Casey, B. J. (in press). An integrative theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder based on the cognitive and affective neurosciences. Development and Psychopathology.
Nigg, J. T., & Huang–Pollock, C. L. (2003). An early onset model of the role of executive functions and intelligence in conduct disorder/delinquency. In B. B. Lahey, T. Moffitt, & A. Caspi (Eds.), The causes of conduct disorder and serious juvenile delinquency (pp. 227–253). New York: Guilford Press.
Nigg, J. T., John, O. P., Blaskey, L. G., Huang–Pollock, C. L., Willcutt, E. G., Hinshaw, S. P., et al. (2002). Big five dimensions and ADHD symptoms: Links between personality traits and clinical symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83, 451–469.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T., Silk, K. R., Westen, D., Lohr, N. E., Gold, L. J., Ogata, S. J., et al. (1991). Object representations in the early memories of sexually abused borderline subjects. American Journal of Psychiatry 148, 864–869.Google Scholar
Nigg, J. T., Stavro, G., Ettenhofer, M., Hambrick, D., Miller, T., & Henderson, J. M. (2005). Executive functions and ADHD in adults: Evidence for selective effects on ADHD symptom domains. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 114.Google Scholar
Ogata, S. N., Silk, K. R., Goodrich, S., Lohr, N. E., Westen, D., & Hill, E. M. (1990). Childhood sexual and physical abuse in adult patients with borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 147, 1008–1013.Google Scholar
O'Leary, K. M. (2000). Borderline personality disorder. Neuropsychological testing results. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 23, 41–60.Google Scholar
Oosterlaan, J., Logan, X., & Sergeant, X. (1998). Response inhibition in AD/HD, CD, comorbid AD/HD CD, anxious, and control children: A meta-analysis of studies with the stop task. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 39, 411–425.Google Scholar
Patterson, C. M., & Newman, J. P. (1993). Reflectivity and learning from aversive events: Toward a psychological mechanism for the syndromes of disinhibition. Psycholical Review 100, 716–736.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R., DeGarmo, D. S., & Knutson, N. (2000). Hyperactive and antisocial behaviors: Comorbid or two points in the same process? Development and Psychopathology 12, 91–106.Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D., Cicchetti, D., Klorman, R., & Brumaghim, J. T. (1997). Cognitive brain event-related potentials and emotion processing in maltreated children. Child Development 68, 7773–787.Google Scholar
Posner, M. I., Rothbart, M. K., Vizueta, N., Levy, K. N., Evans, D. E., Thomas, K. M., et al. (2002). Attentional mechanisms of borderline personality disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99, 16366–16370.Google Scholar
Posner, M. I., Rothbart, M. K., Vizueta, N., Thomas, K. M., Levy, K. N., Fossella, J., et al. (2003). An approach to the psychobiology of personality disorders. Development and Psychopathology 15, 1093–1106.Google Scholar
Quay, H. C. (1988). Attention-deficit disorder and the behavioral inhibition system: The relevance of the neuropsychological theory of Jeffrey A. Gray. In L. M. Bloomingdale & J. Sergeant (Eds.), Attention-deficit disorder: Criteria, cognition, intervention (pp. 117–126). New York: Pergamon Press.
Raine, A. (1996). Autonomic nervous system factors underlying disinhibited, antisocial, and violent behavior. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 794, 46–59.Google Scholar
Raine, A. (2002). Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults: A review. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 30, 311–326.Google Scholar
Rinne, T., Westenberg, H., den Boer, J. A., & van den Brink, W. (2000). Serotonergic blunting to meta-chlorophenylpiperazine (m-CPP) highly correlates with sustained child abuse in impulsive and autoaggressive female borderline patients. Biological Psychiatry 47, 548–556.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (1998). Temperament. In W. Damon (Ser. Ed.) & N. Eisenberg (Vol. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 105–176). New York: Wiley.
Sarason, I. G., Pierce, G. R., & Sarason, B. R. (1996). Cognitive interference: Theories, methods, and findings. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Schachar, R., Tannock, R., & Logan, G. (1993). Inhibitory control, impulsiveness, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Psychology Review 13, 721–739.Google Scholar
Schmideberg, M. (1947). The treatment of psychopaths and borderline patients. American Journal of Psychotherapy 1, 45–70.Google Scholar
Segal, Z. V. (1996). Cognitive interference in depressive and anxiety-based disorders. In I. G. Sarason, G. R. Pierce, & B. R. Sarason (Eds.), Cognitive interference: Theories, methods, and findings (pp. 325–345). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Seguin, J. R., Nagin, D., Assaad, J. M., & Tremblay, R. E. (2004). Cognitive–neuropsychological function in chronic physical aggression and hyperactivity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 113, 603–613.Google Scholar
Siever, L. J., & Davis, K. L. (1991). A psychobiological perspective on the personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 148, 1647–1658.Google Scholar
Silk, K. R., Lee, S., Hill, E. M., & Lohr, N. E. (1995). Borderline personality disorder and severity of sexual abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry 152, 1059–1064.Google Scholar
Silk, K. R., Nigg, J. T., Westen, D., & Lohr, N. E. (1997). Severity of childhood sexual abuse, borderline symptoms, and familial environment. In M. Zanarini (Ed.), The role of sexual abuse in the etiology of borderline personality disorder (pp. 131–163). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Spitzer, R. L., Endicott, J., & Gibbon, M. (1979). Crossing the border into borderline personality and borderline schizophrenia: The development of criteria. Archives of General Psychiatry 36, 17–24.Google Scholar
Stein, D. J., Hollander, E., Cohen, L., Frenkel, M., Saoud, J. B., DeCaria, C., et al. (1993). Neuropsychiatric impairment in impulsive personality disorders. Psychiatry Research 48, 257–266.Google Scholar
Swirsky–Sacchetti, T., Gorton, G., Samuel, S., Sobel, R., Genetta–Wadley, A., & Burleigh, B. (1993). Neuropsychological function in borderline personality disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology 49, 385–396.Google Scholar
Teicher, M. H., Andersen, S. L., Polcari, A., Anderson, C. M., & Navalta, C. P. (2002). Developmental neurobiology of childhood stress and trauma. Psychiatric Clinics of North America 25, 397–426.Google Scholar
Teicher, M. H., Andersen, S. L., Polcari, A., Anderson, C. M., Navalta, C. P., & Kim, D. M. (2003). The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 27, 33–44.Google Scholar
Teicher, M. H., Ito, Y, Glod, C. A., Schiffer, F., & Gelbard, H. A. (1994). Early abuse, limbic system dysfunction, and borderline personality disorder. In K. R. Silk (Ed.), Biological and neurobehavioral studies of borderline personality disorder (pp. 177–207). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
Terr, L. C. (1991). Childhood traumas: An outline and overview. American Journal of Psychiatry 148, 10–20.Google Scholar
Trull, T. J. (2001). Structural relations between borderline personality disorder features and putative etiological correlates. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 110, 471–481.Google Scholar
Trull, T. J., Widiger, T. A., Lynam, D. R., & Cota, P. T. (2003). Borderline personality disorder from the perspective of general personality functioning. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112, 193–202.Google Scholar
van Reekum, R., Links, P. S., & Federov, C. (1994). Impulsivity in borderline personality disorder. In K. R. Silk (Ed.), Biological and neurobehavioral studies of borderline personality disorder (pp. 1–22). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Vollm, B., Richardson, P., Stirling, J., Elliott, R., Dolan, M., Chaudhry, I., et al. (2004). Neurobiological substrates of antisocial and borderline personality disorder: Preliminary results of a functional fMRI study. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health 14, 39–54.Google Scholar
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Harkness, A. R. (1994). Structures of personality and their relevance to psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 103, 18–31.Google Scholar
Wender, P. H., Wolf, L. E., & Wasserstein, J. (2001). Adults with ADHD: An overview. In L. E. Wolf & J. Wasserstein (Eds.), Adult attention deficit disorder: Brain mechanisms and life outcomes (pp. 1–16). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., Nigg, J. T., Faraone, S. V., & Pennington, B. F. (2005). Validity of the executive function theory of ADHD: A meta-analytic review. Biological Psychiatry 57, 1336–1346.Google Scholar
Willcutt, E. G., Pennington, B. F., Boada, R., Ogline, J. S., Tunick, R. A., Chhabildas, N. A., et al. (2001). A comparison of the cognitive deficits in reading disability and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 110, 157–172.Google Scholar
Winnicott, D. W. (1960). The theory of the parent–infant relationship. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 41, 585–595.Google Scholar
Yen, S., Shea, M. T., Battle, C. L., Johnson, D. M., Zlotnick, C., Dolan–Sewell, R., et al. (2002). Traumatic exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in borderline, schizotypal, avoidant, and obsessive–compulsive personality disorders: Findings from the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases 190, 510–518.Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Kimble, C. R., & Williams, A. A. (1994). Neurological dysfunction in borderline patients and Axis II control subjects. In K. R. Silk (Ed.), Biological and neurobehavioral studies of borderline personality disorder (pp. 159–175). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Zanarini, M. C., Williams, A. A., Lewis, R. E., Reich, R. B., Vera, S. C., Marino, M. F., et al. (1997). Reported pathological childhood experiences associated with the development of borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 154, 1101–1106.Google Scholar
Zanarini, M. C., Yong, L., Frankenburg, F. R., Hennen, J., Reich, D. B., Marino, M. F., et al. (2002). Severity of reported childhood sexual abuse and its relationship to severity of borderline psychopathology and psychosocial impairment among borderline patients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases 190, 381–387.Google Scholar
Zuckerman, M. (1991). Psychobiology of personality. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Zuckerman, M., Kuhlman, D. M., Joireman, J., Teta, P., & Kraft, M. (1993). A comparison of the three structural models for personality: The big three, the big five, and the alternative five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65, 757–768.Google Scholar