Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T09:30:30.223Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Emotional instability, poor emotional awareness, and the development of borderline personality

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  14 October 2009

Pamela M. Cole ,
Sandra J. Llera  and
Caroline K. Pemberton
Pamela M. Cole*
Affiliation:
Pennsylvania State University
Sandra J. Llera
Affiliation:
Pennsylvania State University
Caroline K. Pemberton
Affiliation:
Pennsylvania State University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Pamela M. Cole, Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802-3106; E-mail: pmc5@psu.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Emotional instability and poor emotional awareness are cardinal features of the emotional dysregulation associated with borderline personality disorder (BPD). Most models of the development of BPD include child negative emotional reactivity and grossly inadequate caregiving (e.g., abuse, emotional invalidation) as major contributing factors. However, early childhood emotional reactivity and exposure to adverse family situations are associated with a diverse range of long-term outcomes. We examine the known effects of these risk factors on early childhood emotional functioning and their potential links to the emergence of chronic emotional instability and poor emotional awareness. This examination leads us to advocate new research directions. First, we advocate for enriching the developmental assessment of children's emotional functioning to more closely capture clinically relevant aspects. Second, we advocate for conceptualizing children's early family experiences in terms of the proximal emotional environment to which young children may be or become sensitive. Such approaches should contribute to our ability to identify risk for BPD and guide preventive intervention.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 21 , Issue 4: Precursors and Diverse Pathways to Personality Disorder in Children and Adolescents: Part 2 , November 2009 , pp. 1293 - 1310
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agrawal, H. R., Gunderson, J., Holmes, B. M., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2004). Attachment studies with borderline patients: A review. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 12, 94–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bates, J. E., & Pettit, G. S. (2007). Temperament, parenting, and socialization. In Grusec, J. E. & Hastings, P. D. (Eds.), Handbook of socialization: Theory and research (pp. 153–177). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Beeghly, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1997). Talking about self and other: Emergence of an internal state lexicon in young children with Down syndrome. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 729–748.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berenbaum, H., Raghavan, C., Le, H.-N., Vernon, L. L., & Gomez, J. J. (2003). A taxonomy of emotional disturbances. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 206–226.Google Scholar
Berliner, L., & Elliott, D. M. (2002). Sexual abuse of children. In Myers, J. E., Berliner, L., Hendrix, J., Terry, C., Jenny, C., et al. (Eds.), The APSAC handbook on child maltreatment (2nd ed., pp. 55–78). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Blandon, A. Y., Calkins, S. D., Keane, S. P., & O'Brien, M. (2008). Individual differences in trajectories of emotion regulation processes: The effects of maternal depressive symptomatology and children's physiological regulation. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1110–1123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bouchard, T. J. Jr., & Loehlin, J. C. (2001). Genes, evolution, and personality. Behavior Genetics, 31, 243–273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, S. J. (2003). Affect regulation and the development of psychopathology. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Briere, J. (2006). Dissociative symptoms and trauma exposure: Specifity, affect regulation, and posttraumatic stress. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 194, 78–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brodsky, B. S., Groves, S. A., Oquendo, M. A., Mann, J. J., & Stanley, B. (2006). Interpersonal precipitants and suicide attempts in borderline personality disorder. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 36, 313–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buitelaar, J. K., Huizink, A. C., Mulder, E. J., de Medina, P. G. R., & Visser, G. H. A. (2003). Prenatal stress and cognitive development and temperament in infants. Neurobiology of Aging, 24(Suppl), S53–S60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Camras, L. A., Grow, J. G., & Ribordy, S. C. (1983). Recognition of emotional expression by abused children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 12, 325–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camras, L. A., Sachs-Alter, E., & Ribordy, S. C. (1996). Emotion understanding in maltreated children: Recognition of facial expressions and integration with other emotion cues. In Lewis, M. & Sullivan, M. W. (Eds.), Emotional development in atypical children. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Cheavens, J. S., Rosenthal, M. Z., Daughters, S. B., Nowak, J., Kosson, D., Lynch, T. R., et al. (2005). An analogue investigation of the relationships among perceived parental criticism, negative affect, and borderline personality disorder features: The role of thought suppression. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 257–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Ackerman, B. P., & Izard, C. E. (1995). Emotions and emotion regulation in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Howes, P. W. (1991). Developmental psychology in the context of the family: Illustrations from the study of child maltreatment. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 23, 257–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., Toth, S. L., & Spagnola, M. (1997). Affect, cognition, and the emergence of self-knowledge in the toddler offspring of depressed mothers. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 67, 338–362.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Toth, S., & Bush, M. (1988). Developmental psychopathology and incompetence in childhood: Suggestions for intervention. In Lahey, B. B. & Kazdin, A. E. (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 11). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R., Przybeck, T. R., Svrakic, D. M., & Wetzel, R. D. (1994). The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI): A guide to its development and use. St. Louis, MO: Washington University, Center for Psychobiology of Personality.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R., Svrakic, D. M., & Pryzbeck, T. R. (1993). A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 975–990.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, P. M., & Hall, S. E. (2008). Emotion dysregulation as a risk factor for psychopathology. In Beauchaine, T. & Hinshaw, S. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (pp. 265–298). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cole, P. M., Michel, M. K., & Teti, L. O. (1994). The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation: A clinical perspective. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2–3, Serial No. 240), 73–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, P. M., & Tan, P. Z. (2006). Emotion socialization from a cultural perspective. In Grusec, J. E. & Hastings, P. D. (Eds.), Handbook of socialization (pp. 516–542). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Constantino, J. N., Cloninger, C. R., Clarke, A. R., Hashemi, B., & Przybeck, T. (2002). Application of the seven-factor model of personality to early childhood. Psychiatry Research, 109, 229–243.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Normal personality assessment in clinical practice: The NEO personality inventory. Psychological Assessment, 4, 5–13.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crittenden, P. M., & DiLalla, D. L. (1988). Compulsive compliance: The development of an inhibitory coping strategy in infancy. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 585–599.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cromer, L. D., Stevens, C., DePrince, A. P., & Pears, K. (2006). The relationship between executive attention and dissociation in children. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 7, 135–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crowell, S. E., Beauchaine, T. P., & Linehan, M. M. (2009). A biosocial developmental model of borderline personality: Elaborating and extending Linehan's theory. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 495–510.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeClercq, B., DeFruyt, F., Van Leeuwen, K., & Mervielde, I. (2006). The structure of maladaptive personality traits in childhood: A step toward an integrative developmental perspective for DSM-V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 639–657.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denham, S. A. (1998). Emotional development in young children. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Dix, T. (1991). The affective organization of parenting: Adaptive and maladaptative processes. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 3–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Domes, G., Czieschnek, D., Weidler, F., Berger, C., Fast, K., & Herpertz, S. C. (2008). Recognition of facial affect in borderline personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 22, 135–147.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donegan, N. H., Sanislow, C. A., Blumberg, H. P., Fulbright, R. K., Lacadie, C., Skudlarski, P., et al. (2003). Amygdala hyperreactivity in borderline personality disorder: Implications for emotional dysregulation. Biological Psychiatry, 54, 1284–1293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donzella, B., Gunnar, M. R., Krueger, W. K., & Alwin, J. (2000). Cortisol and vagal tone responses to competitive challenge in preschoolers: Associations with temperament. Developmental Psychobiology, 37, 209–220.3.0.CO;2-S>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ebner-Priemer, U. W., Kuo, J., Kleindeinst, N., Welch, S. S., Reisch, T., Reinhard, I., et al. (2007). State affective instability in borderline personality disorder assessed by ambulatory monitoring. Psychological Medicine, 37, 961–970.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998). Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological Inquiry, 9, 241–273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrell, J. M., & Shaw, I. A. (1994). Emotional awareness training: A prerequisite to effective cognitive–behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 1, 71–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fernald, A. (1993). Approval and disapproval: Infant responsiveness to vocal affect in familiar and unfamiliar languages. Child Development, 64, 657–674.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ferraz, L., Vállez, M., Navarro, J. B., Gelabert, E., Martín-Santos, R., & Subirà, S. (2009). Dimensional assessment of personality and impulsiveness in borderline personality disorder. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 140–146.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fertuck, E. A., Lenzenweger, M. F., Clarkind, J. F., Hoermann, S., & Stanley, B. (2006). Executive neurocognition, memory systems, and borderline personality disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 346–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Figueroa, E., & Silk, K. R. (1997). Biological implications of childhood sexual abuse in borderline personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 11, 71–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fonagy, P., Gergely, G., Jurist, E. L., & Target, M. (2002). Affect regulation, mentalization, and the development of the self. New York: Other Press.Google Scholar
Fries, A. B., & Pollak, S. D. (2004). Emotion understanding in postinstitutionalized Eastern European children. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 355–369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilliom, M., Shaw, D. S., Beck, J. E., Schonberg, M. A., & Lukon, J. L. (2002). Anger regulation in disadvantaged preschool boys: Strategies, antecedents, and the development of self-control. Developmental Psychology, 38, 222–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldsmith, H. H., Lemery, K. S., Buss, K. A., & Campos, J. J. (1999). Genetic analyses of focal aspects of temperament. Developmental Psychology, 35, 972–985.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, M., & Yehuda, R. (2002). The relationship between psychological trauma and borderline personality disorder. Psychiatric Annals, 32, 337–345.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, S., Weiner, B., Cobb, M., & Henderson, T. (2001). An attributional analysis of child abuse among low-income African American mothers. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20, 233–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gratz, K. L. (2003). Risk factors for and functions of deliberate self-harm: An empirical and conceptual review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10, 192–205.Google Scholar
Gratz, K. L., Tull, M. T., & Gunderson, J. G. (2008). Preliminary data on the relationship between anxiety sensitivity and borderline personality disorder: The role of experiential avoidance. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42, 550–559.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenberg, L. S., & Safran, J. D. (1984). Integrating affect and cognition: A perspective on the process of therapeutic change. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 8, 559–578.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, M. T., Kusché, C. A., Cook, E. T., & Quamma, J. P. (1995). Promoting emotional competence in school-aged children: The effects of the PATHs curriculum. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 117–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grosjean, B., & Tsai, G. E. (2007). NMDA neurotransmission as a critical mediator of borderline personality disorder. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, 32, 103–115.Google ScholarPubMed
Gross, J. J., & Muñoz, R. F. (1995). Emotion regulation and mental health. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 2, 151–164.Google Scholar
Gunderson, J. G. (2007). Disturbed relationships as a phenotype for borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 1637–1640.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunderson, J. G., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2008). BPD's interpersonal hypersensitivity phenotype: A gene–environment–developmental model. Journal of Personality Disorders, 22, 22–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gunnar, M., & Quevedo, K. (2007). The neurobiology of stress and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 145–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris, P. L. (1989). Children and emotion: The development of psychological understanding. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Hayes, S. C., Wilson, K. G., Gifford, E. V., Follette, V. M., & Strosahl, K. (1996). Experiential avoidance and behavioral disorders: A functional dimensional approach to diagnosis and treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 1152–1168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hennessy, K. D., Rabideau, G. J., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (1994). Responses of physically abused and nonabused children to different forms of interadult anger. Child Development, 65, 815–828.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herman, J., Russell, D., & Trocki, K. (1986). Long-term effects of incestuous abuse in childhood. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 1293–1296.Google ScholarPubMed
Herman, J. L. (1992). Trauma and recovery. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Izard, C. E., King, K. A., Trentacosta, C. J., Morgan, J. K., Laurenceau, J., Krauthamer-Ewing, E. S., et al. (2008). Accelerating the development of emotion competence in Head Start children: Effects on adaptive and maladaptive behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 369–397.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jogems-Kosterman, B. J. M., de Knijff, D. W. W., Kusters, R., & van Hoof, J. J. M. (2007). Basal cortisol and DHEA levels in women with borderline personality disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 41, 1019–1026.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Joyce, P. R., Mulder, R. T., Luty, S. E., McKenzie, J. M, Sullivan, P. F., & Cloninger, R. C. (2003). Borderline personality disorder in major depression: Symptomatology, temperament, character, differential drug response, and 6-month outcome. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 44, 35–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Judd, P. H. (2005). Neurocognitive impairment as a moderator in the development of borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1173–1196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keenan, K. (2000). Emotion dysregulation as a risk factor for child psychopathology. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 7, 418–434.Google Scholar
Keller, M. C., Coventry, W. L., Heath, A. C., & Martin, N. G. (2005). Widespread evidence for non-additive genetic variation in Cloninger's and Eysenck's personality dimensions using a twin plus sibling design. Behavior Genetics, 35, 707–721.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kernberg, O. F. (1975). Borderline conditions and pathological narcissism. New York: Aronson.Google Scholar
Klinnert, M. D., Emde, R. N., Butterfield, P., & Campos, J. J. (1986). Social referencing: The infant's use of emotional signals from a friendly adult with mother present. Developmental Psychology, 22, 427–432.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koenigsberg, H. W., Harvey, P. D., Mitropoulou, V., Schmeider, J., New, A. S., Goodman, M., et al. (2002). Characterizing affective instability in borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 784–788.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kopp, C. B. (1989). Regulation of distress and negative emotions: A developmental view. Developmental Psychology, 25, 343–354.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kring, A. M., & Werner, K. H. (2004). Emotion regulation and psychopathology. In Philippot, P. & Feldman, R. S. (Eds.), The regulation of emotion (pp. 359–385). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Leech, S. L., Day, N. L., Richardson, G. A., & Goldschmidt, L. (2003). Predictors of self-reported delinquency in a sample of young adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 23, 78–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leerkes, E. M., & Siepak, K. J. (2006). Attachment linked predictors of women's emotional and cognitive responses to infant distress. Attachment and Human Development, 8, 11–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lenzenweger, M. F., Clarkin, J. F., Yeomans, F. E., Kernberg, O. F., & Levy, K. N. (2008). Refining the borderline personality disorder phenotype through finite mixture modeling: Implications for classification. Journal of Personality Disorders, 22, 313–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levine, D., Marziali, E., & Hood, J. (1997). Emotion processing in borderline personality disorders. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 185, 240–246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Linehan, M. M. (1993). Cognitive–behavioral treatment of borderline personality disorder. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Livesley, W. J., Jackson, D. N., & Schroeder, M. L. (1992). Factorial structure of traits delineating personality disorders in clinical and general population samples. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 432–440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loehlin, J. C., Willerman, L., & Horn, J. M. (1985). Personality resemblances in adoptive families when the children are late-adolescent or adult. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 376–392.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynch, T. R., Rosenthal, M. Z., Kosson, D. S., Cheavens, J. S., Lejuez, C. W., & Blair, R. J. (2006). Heightened sensitivity to facial expressions of emotion in borderline personality disorder. Emotion, 6, 647–655.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyons-Ruth, K., Dutra, L., Schuder, M. R., & Bianchi, I. (2006). From infant attachment organization to adult dissociation: Relational adaptations or traumatic experiences? Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 29, 63–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Macfie, J., Fitzpatrick, K. L., Rivas, E. M., & Cox, M. J. (2008). Independent influences upon mother–toddler role reversal: Infant–mother attachment disorganization and role reversal in mother's childhood. Attachment and Human Development, 10, 29–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Macfie, J., Houts, R. M., Pressel, A. S., & Cox, M. J. (2008). Pathways from infant exposure to marital conflict to parent–toddler role reversal. Infant Mental Health Journal, 29, 297–319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacLeod, C., Mathews, A., & Tata, P. (1986). Attentional bias in emotional disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 15–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manly, J. D., Kim, J. E., Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Dimensions of child maltreatment and children's adjustment: Contributions of developmental timing and subtype. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 759–782.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maughan, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2002). Impact of child maltreatment and interadult violence on children's emotion regulation abilities and socioemotional adjustment. Child Development, 73, 1525–1542.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (1986). Discrimination of threat cues without awareness in anxiety states. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 131–138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milham, M. P., & Banich, M. T. (2005). Anterior cingulate cortex: An fMRI analysis of conflict specificity and functional differentiation. Human Brain Mapping, 25, 328–335.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mogg, K., Mathews, A., & Weinman, J. (1987). Memory bias in clinical anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 96, 94–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, A. S., Silk, J. S., Steinberg, L., Myers, S. S., & Robinson, L. R. (2007). The role of family context in the development of emotion regulation. Social Development, 16, 361–388.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
National Research Council. (1993). Understanding child abuse and neglect. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
New, A. S., Triebwasser, J., & Charney, D. S. (2008). The case for shifting borderline personality disorder to Axis I. Biological Psychiatry, 64, 653–659.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paris, J. (1998). Does childhood trauma cause personality disorders in adults? Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 43, 148–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paris, J. (2007). The nature of borderline personality disorder: Multiple dimensions, multiple symptoms, but one category. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 457–453.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parker, J. G., & Herrera, C. (1996). Interpersonal processes in friendship: A comparison of abused and nonabused children's experiences. Developmental Psychology, 32, 1025–1038.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia.Google Scholar
Pears, K., & Fisher, P. A. (2005). Emotion understanding and theory of mind among maltreated children in foster care: Evidence of deficits. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 47–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pesonen, A., Räikkönen, K., Heinonen, K., Komsi, N., Järvenpää, A., & Strandberg, T. (2008). A transactional model of temperamental development: Evidence of a relationship between child temperament and maternal stress over five years. Social Development, 17, 326–340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pine, D. S., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Montgomery, L., Monk, C. S., McClure, E., et al. (2005). Attention bias to threat in maltreated children: Implications for vulnerability to stress-related psychopathology. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 291–296.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollak, S. D. (2009). The emergence of emotion: Experience, development and biology. In Cicchetti, D. & Gunnar, M. R. (Eds.), Meeting the challenge of translational research in child psychology: Minnesota symposia on child psychology (Vol. 35, pp. 189–238). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Pollak, S. D., Cicchetti, D., Hornung, K., & Reed, A. (2000). Recognizing emotion in faces: Developmental effects of child abuse and neglect. Developmental Psychology, 36, 679–688.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pollak, S. D., & Sinha, P. (2002). Effects of early experience on children's recognition of facial displays of emotion. Developmental Psychology, 38, 784–791.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Putnam, K. M., & Silk, K. R. (2005). Emotion dysregulation and the development of borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 899–925.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Repacholi, B. M., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2007). Emotional eavesdropping: Infants selectively respond to indirect emotional signals. Child Development, 78, 503–521.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rieder, C., & Cicchetti, D. (1989). Organizational perspective on cognitive control functioning and cognitive-affective balance in maltreated children. Developmental Psychology, 25, 382–393.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rinne, T., De Kloet, E. R., Wouters, L., Goekoop, J. G., de Rijk, R., & van den Brink, W. (2002). Hyperresponsiveness of the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis to combined dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing hormone challenge in female borderline personality disorder subjects with a history of sustained childhood abuse. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 1102–1112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2005). Child maltreatment, attention networks, and potential precursors to borderline personality disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 1071–1089.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rogosch, F. A., Cicchetti, D., & Aber, J. L. (1995). The role of child maltreatment in early deviations in cognitive and affective processing abilities and later peer relationship problems. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 591–609.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenthal, M. Z., Cheavens, J. S., Lejuezb, C. W., & Lynch, T. R. (2005). Thought suppression mediates the relationship between negative affect and borderline personality disorder symptoms. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1173–1185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenthal, M. Z., Gratz, K. L., Kosson, D. S., Cheavens, J. S., Lejuez, C. W., & Lynch, T. R. (2008). Borderline personality disorder and emotional responding: A review of the research literature. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 75–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In Eisenberg, N., Damon, W., & Lerner, R. M. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 99–166). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Ruocco, A. C. (2005). The neuropsychology of borderline personality disorder: A meta-analysis and review. Psychiatry Research, 137, 191–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Russell, J. J., Moskowitz, D. S., Zuroff, D. C., Sookman, D., & Paris, J. (2007). Stability and variability of affective experience and interpersonal behavior in borderline personality disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 578–588.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sanislow, C. A., Grilo, C. M., Morey, L. C., Bender, D. S., Skodol, A. E., Gunderson, J. G., et al. (2002). Confirmatory factor analysis of DSM-IV criteria for borderline personality disorder: Findings from the collaborative longitudinal personality disorders study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 284–290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schermerhorn, A. D., Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (2005). Children's perceived agency in the context of marital conflict: Relations with marital conflict over time. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 51, 121–145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Selby, E. A., Anestis, M. D., Bender, T. W., & Joiner, T. E. (2009). An exploration of the emotional cascade model in borderline personality disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 375–387.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shackman, J. E., Shackman, A. J., & Pollak, S. D. (2007). Physical abuse amplifies attention to threat and increases anxiety in children. Emotion, 7, 838–852.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shields, A. M., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). Reactive aggression among maltreated children: The contributions of attention and emotion dysregulation. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 381–395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shipman, K. L., & Zeman, J. (2001). Socialization of children's emotion regulation in mother–child dyads: A developmental psychopathology perspective. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 317–336.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shipman, K. L., Zeman, J., Fitzgerald, M., & Swisher, L. M. (2003). Regulating emotion in parent-child and peer relationships: A comparison of sexually maltreated and nonmaltreated girls. Child Maltreatment, 8, 163–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siever, L. J., & Davis, K. L. (1991). A psychobiological perspective on the personality disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 1647–1658.Google ScholarPubMed
Siever, L. J., Torgersen, S., Gunderson, J. G., Livesley, W. J., & Kendler, K. S. (2002). The borderline diagnosis III: Identifying endophenotypes for genetic studies. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 964–968.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silk, J. S., Shaw, D. S., Skuban, E. M., Oland, A. A., & Kovacs, M. (2006). Emotion regulation strategies in offspring of childhood-onset depressed mothers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 69–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simeon, D., Knutelska, M., Smith, L., Baker, B. R., & Hollander, E. (2007). A preliminary study of cortisol and norepinephrine reactivity to psychosocial stress in borderline personality disorder with high and low dissociation. Psychiatry Research, 149, 177–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Skodol, A. E., Gunderson, J. G., Pfohl, B., Widiger, T. A., Livesley, W. J., & Siever, L. J. (2002). The borderline diagnosis I: Psychopathology, comorbidity, and personality structure. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 936–950.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, C. L., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2006). The relation of maternal behavior and attachment security to toddlers' emotions and emotion regulation. Research in Human Development, 3, 21–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stern, A. (1938). Borderline group of neuroses. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 7, 467–489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stiglmayr, C. E., Grathwol, T., Linehan, M. M., Ihorst, G., Fahrenberg, J., & Bohus, M. (2005). Aversive tension in patients with borderline personality disorder: A computer-based controlled field study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 111, 372–379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Svrakic, D. M., Whitehead, C., Przybeck, T. R., & Cloninger, C. R. (1993). Differential diagnosis of personality disorders by the seven-factor model of temperament and character. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 991–999.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teisl, M., & Cicchetti, D. (2008). Physical abuse, cognitive and emotional processes, and aggressive/disruptive behavior problems. Social Development, 17, 1–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 25–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tragesser, S. L., Solhan, M., Schwartz-Mette, R., & Trull, T. J. (2007). The role of affective instability and impulsivity in predicting future BPD features. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 603–614.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trull, T. J., & Durrett, C. A. (2005). Categorical and dimensional models of personality disorder. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 355–380.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trull, T. J., Solhan, M., Tragesser, S. L., Jahng, S., Wood, P. K., Piasecki, T. M., et al. (2008). Affective instability: Measuring a core feature of borderline personality disorder with ecological momentary assessment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 647–661.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wagner, A. W., & Linehan, M. M. (1999). Facial expression recognition ability among women with borderline personality disorder: Implications for emotion regulation. Journal of Personality Disorders, 13, 329–344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Westen, D., Ludolph, P., Misle, B., Ruffins, S., & Block, J. (1990). Physical and sexual abuse in adolescent girls with borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 60, 55–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolff, S., Stiglmayr, C., Bretz, H. J., Lammers, C.-H., & Auckenthaler, A. (2007). Emotion identification and tension in female patients with borderline personality disorder. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 46, 347–360.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zanarini, M. C., Frankenburg, F. R., Hennen, J., & Silk, K. R. (2003). The longitudinal course of borderline psychopathology: 6-year prospective follow-up of the phenomenology of borderline personality disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 274–283.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zelkowitz, P., Paris, J., Guzder, J., Feldman, R., Roy, C., & Rosval, L. (2007). A five-year follow-up of patients with borderline pathology of childhood. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21, 664–674.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed