Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T06:35:24.556Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Evocative gene–parenting correlations and academic performance at first grade: An exploratory study

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 October 2012

Cathi B. Propper ,
Michael J. Shanahan ,
Rosemary Russo  and
W. Roger Mills-Koonce
Cathi B. Propper*
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Michael J. Shanahan
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Rosemary Russo
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
W. Roger Mills-Koonce
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Cathi Propper, Center for Developmental Science, 100 East Franklin Street, CB 8115, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-8115; E-mail: propper@unc.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Academic performance during the first years of school lays the groundwork for subsequent trajectories of academic success throughout childhood and adolescence. The current study tests a model according to which a gene–parenting correlation in the first 3 years of life is associated with subsequent psychosocial adjustment and then academic performance in the first grade (as indicated by teachers' assessment of academic behavior and two subscales of the Woodcock–Johnson Test of Achievement, Third Edition). Drawing on multiple waves of data from the Durham Child Health and Development Study, we find that risk alleles for dopamine receptor genes (dopamine receptor D4 for girls, dopamine receptor D2 for boys) are associated with less sensitive parenting. For girls, parenting mediates the link between dopamine receptor D4 and all academic outcomes. There is some indication that parenting also influences girls' withdrawn behavior in the classroom, which in turn influences teachers' assessments of academic performance. For boys, some evidence suggests that parenting is associated with emotion regulation, which is associated with teachers' assessments of academic behavior and both subscales of the Woodcock–Johnson. Replications of this exploratory study are necessary, but these findings provide a first step in understanding how evocative correlations in the home may predict indicators of psychosocial adjustment that in turn influence performance and achievement at school.

Type
Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 24 , Issue 4: Contributions of the Genetic/Genomic Sciences to Developmental Psychopathology , November 2012 , pp. 1265 - 1282
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA School-Age Forms & Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.Google Scholar
Anchordoquy, H. C., McGeary, C., Liu, L., Krauter, K. S., & Smolen, A. (2003). Genotyping of three candidate genes after whole-genome preamplification of DNA collected from buccal cells. Behavior Genetics, 33, 73–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asgahari, V., Schoots, O., van Kats, S., O'Hara, K., Jovanovic, V., Guan, H. C., et al. (1994). Dopamine D4 receptor repeat: Analysis of different native and mutant forms. Molecular Pharmacology, 46, 364–373.Google Scholar
Atkinson, L., Chisholm, V. C., Scott, B., Goldberg, S., Vaughn, B. E., Blackwell, J., et al. (1999). Maternal sensitivity, child functional level, and attachment in Down syndrome. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 64, 45–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2011). Differential susceptibility to rearing environment depending on dopamine-related genes: New evidence and a meta-analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 39–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bardone, A .M., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Dickson, N., & Silva, P. A. (1996). Adult mental health and social outcomes of adolescent girls with depression and conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 811–829.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beaver, M., Vaughn, M. G., Wright, J. P., DeLisi, M., & Howard, M. O. (2010). Three dopaminergic polymorphisms are associated with academic achievement in middle and high school. Intelligence, 38, 596–604.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J. (1984). The determinants of parenting: A process model. Child Development, 55, 83–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benjamin, J., Ebstein, R. P., & Belmaker, R. H. (2002). Molecular genetics and the human personality. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.Google Scholar
Benjamin, J., Li, L., Patterson, C., Greenberg, B. D., Murphy, D. L., & Hamer, D. H. (1996). Population and familial association between the D4 dopamine receptor gene and measures of novelty seeking. Nature Genetics, 12, 81–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bérubé, R. L., & Achenbach, T. M. (2001). Bibliography of published studies using the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA). Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.Google Scholar
Birkas, E., Lakatos, K., Nemoda, Z., Ney, K., Toth, I., Novak, A., et al. (2005). Effects of the D4 dopamine receptor gene variation on behavior problems at 6 years of age. Neuropsychopharmacologia Hungarica, 7, 125–131.Google ScholarPubMed
Blair, C. (2002). School readiness: Integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of child functioning at school entry. American Psychologist, 57, 111–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, C., Granger, D., Willoughby, M., Kivlighan, K., & The Family Life Project Investigators. (2006). Maternal sensitivity is related to hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis stress reactivity and regulation in response to emotion challenge in 6-month-old infants. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 263–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, C., & Peters, R. (2003). Physiological and neurocognitive correlates of adaptive behavior in preschool among children in Head Start. Developmental Neuropsychology, 24, 479–497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blum, K., Noble, E. P., Sheridan, P. J., Finley, O., Montgomery, A., Ritchie, T., et al. (1991). Association of the A1 allele of the D2 dopamine receptor gene with severe alcoholism. Alcohol, 8, 409–416.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Booth, C. L., Rose-Krasnor, L., McKinnon, J., & Rubin, K. H. (1994). Predicting social adjustment in middle childhood: The role of preschool attachment security and maternal style. Social Development, 3, 189–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bramlett, R. K., Rowell, R., & Mandenberg, K. (2000). Predicting first-grade achievement from kindergarten screening measures: A comparison of child and family predictors. Research in the Schools, 7, 1–9.Google Scholar
Brumback, R. A., Dietz-Schmidt, S. G., & Weinberg, W. A. (1977). Depression in children referred to an educational diagnostic center: Diagnosis and treatment and analysis of criteria and literature review. Disturbances of the Nervous System, 38, 529–535.Google Scholar
Bull, R., & Scherif, G. (2001). Executive functioning as a predictor of children's mathematics ability: Inhibition, switching, and working memory. Developmental Neuropsychology, 19, 273–293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calkins, S. D., & Dedmon, S. E. (2000). Physiological and behavioral regulation in two-year-old children with aggressive/destructive behavior problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 103–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calkins, S. D., Smith, C. L., Gill, K., & Johnson, M. C. (1998). Maternal interactive style across contexts: Relations to emotional, behavioral, and physiological regulation during toddlerhood. Social Development, 7, 350–369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campos, J. J., & Barrett, K. (1984). Toward a new understanding of emotions and their development. In Izard, C. E., Kagan, J., Zajonc, R. B., Izard, C. E., Kagan, J., & Zajonc, R. B. (Eds.), Emotions, cognition, and behavior (pp. 229–263). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2000). Scaling back goals and recalibration of the affect system are processes in normal adaptive self-regulation: Understanding “response shift” phenomena. Social Science & Medicine, 50, 1715–1722.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cassidy, J., Parke, R. D., Butkovsky, L., & Braungart, J. M. (1992). Family–peer connections: The roles of emotional expressiveness within the family and children's understanding of emotions. Child Development, 63, 603–618.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, X., Rubin, K. H., & Li, Z. (1995). Social functioning and adjustment in Chinese children: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 31, 531–539.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, X., Rubin, K. H., & Li, D. (1997). Relation between academic achievement and social adjustment: Evidence from Chinese children. Developmental Psychology, 33, 518–525.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1995). A developmental psychopathology perspective on child abuse and neglect. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 541–565.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cloninger, C. (1987). A systematic method for clinical description and classification of personality variants. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 573–588.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cloninger, C. R., Adolfsson, R., & Svrakic, N. M. (1996). Mapping genes for human personality. Nature Genetics, 12, 3–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Comings, D. E., Rosenthal, R. J., Lesieur, H. R., Rugle, L. J., Muhleman, D., Chiu, C., et al. (1996). A study of the dopamine D2 receptor gene in pathological gambling. Pharmacogenetics, 6, 223–234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cox, M. J., Owen, M. T., Henderson, V. K., & Margand, N. A. (1992). Antecedents of infant–father and infant–mother attachment. Developmental Psychology, 28, 474–483.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cox, M. J., & Paley, B. (2003). Understanding families as systems. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, 193–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Crockenberg, S. B. (1981). Infant irritability, mother responsiveness, and social support influences on the security of infant–mother attachment. Child Development, 52, 857–865.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Denham, S. A. (1993). Maternal emotional responsiveness and toddler's social–emotional functioning. Journal of Child Psychology, 34, 715–728.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denham, S. A., McKinley, M., Couchoud, E. A., & Holt, R. (1990). Emotional and behavioral predictors of preschool peer ratings. Child Development, 61, 1145–1152.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Derryberry, D., & Rothbart, M. K. (1984). Emotion, attention, and temperament. In Izard, C. E., Kagan, J., & Zajonc, R. B. (Eds.), Emotions, cognition, and behavior (pp. 132–166). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dick, D. M., Rose, R. J., & Kaprio, J. (2006). The next challenge for psychiatric genetics: Characterizing the risk associated with identified genes. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 18, 223–231.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DiPerna, J., Lei, P., & Reid, E. E. (2007). Kindergarten predictors of mathematical growth in the primary grades: An investigation using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study—kindergarten cohort. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 369–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dobbs, J., Doctoroff, G. L., Fisher, P. H., & Arnold, D. H. (2006). The association between preschool children's socioemotional functioning and their mathematical skills. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27, 97–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dodge, K. A., & Pettit, G. S. (2003). A biopsychosocial model of the development of chronic conduct problems in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 39, 349–371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duncan, L. E., & Keller, M. C. (2011). A critical review of the first 10 years of candidate gene-by-environment interaction research in psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 1041–1049.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DuPaul, G. J., Rapport, M. D., & Perriello, L. M. (1991). Teacher ratings of academic skills: The development of the Academic Performance Rating Scale. School Psychology Review, 20, 284–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ebstein, R. P., Levine, J., Geller, V., Auerbach, J., Gritsenko, I., & Belmaker, R. H. (1998). Dopamine D4 receptor and serotonin transporter promoter in the determination of neonatal temperament. Molecular Psychiatry, 3, 238–246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ebstein, R. P., Nemanov, L., Klotz, I., Gritsenko, I., & Belmaker, R. H. (1997). Additional evidence for an association between the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) exon III polymorphism and the human personality trait of novelty seeking. Molecular Psychiatry, 2, 472–477.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edelsohn, G., Ialongo, N., Werthamer-Larsson, L., Crockett, L., & Kellam, S. (1992). Self-reported depressive symptoms in first-grade children: Developmentally transient phenomena? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 282–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, D. T., Mackillop, J., Modi, M., Beauchemin, J., Dang, D., Lisman, S. A., et al. (2007). Examining impulsivity as an endophenotype using a behavioral approach: A DRD2 TaqI A and DRD4 48-bp VNTR association study. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 3, Article 2. doi:10.1186/1744-9081-3-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. A. (1992). Emotion, regulation, and the development of social competence. In Clark, M. S. (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology: Vol. 14. Emotion and social behavior (pp. 119–150). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Entwisle, D. R., Alexander, K. L., & Olson, L. S. (2005). First grade and educational attainment by age 22: A new story. American Journal of Sociology, 110, 1458–1502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Estrada, P., Arsenio, W. F., Hess, R. D., & Holloway, S. D. (1987). Affective quality of the mother–child relationship: Longitudinal consequences for children's school-relevant cognitive functioning. Developmental Psychology, 23, 210–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleming, C. B., Harachi, T. W., Cortes, R. C., Abbott, R. D., & Catalano, R. F. (2004). Level and change in reading scores and attention problems during elementary school as predictors of problem behavior in middle school. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 12, 130–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frank, M. J., & Hutchison, K. (2009). Genetic contributions to avoidance-based decisions: Striatal D2 receptor polymorphisms. Neuroscience, 164, 131–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frank, M. J., Moustafa, A. A., Haughey, H., Curran, T., & Hutchison, K. (2007). Genetic triple dissociation reveals multiple roles for dopamine in reinforcement learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104, 16311–16316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Prentice, K., Burch, M., Hamlett, C. L., Owen, R., et al. (2003). Enhancing third-grade student mathematical problem solving with self-regulated learning strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 306–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, S. R., Cheng, R., Nguyen, T., Israel, Y., & O'Dowd, B. F. (1993). Polymorphisms of the D4 dopamine receptor alleles in chronic alcoholism. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 196, 107–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gray, J. (1982). The neuropsychology of anxiety. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Graziano, P. A., Reavis, R. D., Keane, S. P., & Calkins, S. D. (2007). The role of emotion regulation in children's early academic success. Journal of School Psychology, 45, 3–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Griffin, E. A., & Morrison, F. J. (1997). The unique contribution of home literacy environment to differences in early literacy skills. Early Child Development and Care, 127–128, 233–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grigorenko, E. L., Geiser, C., Slobodskaya, H. R., & Francis, D. J. (2010). Cross-informant symptoms from CBCL, TRF, and YSR: Trait and method variance in a normative sample of Russian youths. Psychological Assessment, 22, 893–911.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haley, D. W., & Stansbury, K. (2003). Infant stress and parent responsiveness: Regulation of physiology and behavior during still-face and reunion. Child Development, 74, 1534–1546.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammen, C., & Rudolph, K. D. (1996). Childhood depression. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hill, A. L., Degnan, K. A., Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2006). Profiles of externalizing behavior problems for boys and girls across preschool: The roles of emotion regulation and inattention. Developmental Psychology, 42, 913–928.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinshaw, S. P. (1992). Externalizing behavior problems and academic underachievement in childhood and adolescence: Causal relationships and underlying mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 127–155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hodges, K., & Plow, J. (1990). Intellectual ability and achievement in psychiatrically hospitalized children with conduct, anxiety, and affective disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 589–595.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howse, R. B., Calkins, S. D., Anastopoulos, A. D., Keane, S. P., & Shelton, T. L. (2003). Regulatory contributors to children's kindergarten achievement. Early Education and Development, 14, 101–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ialongo, N., Edelsohn, G., Werthamer-Larsson, L., Crockett, L., & Kellam, S. (1995). The significance of self-reported anxious symptoms of first-grade children: Prediction to anxious symptoms and adaptive functioning in fifth grade. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 427–1427.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaffee, S. R., & Price, T. S. (2007). Gene–environment correlations: A review of the evidence and implications for prevention of mental illness. Molecular Psychiatry, 12, 432–442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keogh, B. K. (1992). Temperament and teachers' views of teachability. In Carey, W. & McDevitt, S. (Eds.), Prevention and early intervention: Individual differences as risk factors for the mental health of children (pp. 246–254). New York: Bruner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Kerckhoff, A. C. (2007). Diverging pathways: Social structure and career deflections. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kirley, A., Lowe, N., Mullins, C., McCarron, M., Daly, G., Waldman, I., et al. (2004). Phenotype studies of the DRD4 gene polymorphisms in ADHD: Association with oppositional defiant disorder and positive family history. American Journal of Medical Genetics: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 131B, 38–42.Google ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G. (2001). Emotional development in children with different attachment histories: The first three years. Child Development, 72, 474–490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ladd, G. W., Birch, S. H., & Buhs, E. S. (1999). Children's social and scholastic lives in kindergarten: Related spheres of influence? Child Development, 70, 1373–1400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LaHoste, G. J., Swanson, J. M., Wigal, S. B., Glabe, C., Wigal, T., King, N., et al. (1996). Dopamine D4 receptor gene polymorphism is associated with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Molecular Psychiatry, 1, 83–84.Google ScholarPubMed
Lawford, B. R., Young, R. M., Noble, E. P., Sargent, J., Rowell, J., Shadforth, S., et al. (2000). The D2 dopamine receptor A(1) allele and opioid dependence: Association with heroin use and response to methadone treatment. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 96, 592–598.3.0.CO;2-Y>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leadbeater, B. J., Bishop, S. J., & Raver, C. C. (1996). Quality of mother–toddler interactions, maternal depressive symptoms, and behavior problems in preschoolers of adolescent mothers. Developmental Psychology, 32, 280–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lin, H., Lawrence, F. R., & Gorrell, J. (2003). Kindergarten teachers' views of children's readiness for school. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 18, 225–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lu, R. B., Lee, J. F., Ko, H. C., & Lin, W. W. (2001). Dopamine D2 receptor gene (DRD2) is associated with alcoholism with conduct disorder. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 25, 177–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lucht, M., Barnow, S., Schroeder, W., Grabe, H. J., Finckh, U., John, U., et al. (2006). Negative perceived paternal parenting is associated with dopamine D2 receptor exon 8 and GABA(A) alpha 6 receptor variants: An explorative study. American Journal of Medical Genetics: Part B Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 141B, 167–172.Google ScholarPubMed
MacCallum, R. C., Browne, M. W., & Sugawara, H. M. (1996). Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychological Methods, 1, 130–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maguin, E., & Loeber, R. (1996). Academic performance and delinquency. Crime and Justice, 20, 145–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marino, C., Vanzin, L., Giordo, R., Frigerio, A., Lorussa, M. L., Nobile, M., et al. (2011). An assessment of transmission disequilibrium between quantitative measures of childhood problem behaviors and DRD2/TaqI and DRD4/48 bp-repeat polymorphisms. Behavior Genetics, 34, 495–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin, R. P., Nagle, R., & Paget, K. (1983). Relationships between temperament and classroom behavior, teacher attitudes, and academic achievement. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 1, 377–386.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martin-Soelch, J., Szczepanik, A., Nugent, K., Barhaghi, D., Rallis, P., Herscovitch, R. E., et al. (2011). Lateralization and gender differences in the dopaminergic response to unpredictable reward in the human ventral striatum. European Journal of Neuroscience, 33, 1706–1715.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., Roisman, G. I., Long, J. D., Burt, K. B., Obradović, J., Riley, J. R., et al. (2005). Developmental cascades: Linking academic achievement, externalizing and internalizing symptoms over 20 years. Developmental Psychology, 41, 733–746.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mather, N., & Woodcock, R. W. (2001). Woodcock Johnson III Tests of Achievement: Examiner's manual. Itasca, IL: Riverside.Google Scholar
McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Connor, C. M., Farris, C. L., Jewkes, A. M., & Morrison, F. J. (2007). Links between behavioral regulation and preschoolers' literacy, vocabulary, and math skills. Developmental Psychology, 43, 447–459.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGue, M., Slutske, W., Taylor, J., & Iacono, W. G. (1997). Personality and substance use disorders: I. Effects of gender and alcoholism subtype. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 21, 513–520.Google ScholarPubMed
Mills-Koonce, W., Gariépy, J., Propper, C., Sutton, K., Calkins, S., Moore, G., et al. (2007). Infant and parent factors associated with early maternal sensitivity: A caregiver–attachment systems approach. Infant Behavior and Development, 30, 114–126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mills-Koonce, W. R., Propper, C., Gariépy, J. L., Blair, C., Garrett-Peters, P., & Cox, M. J. (2008). Bidirectional genetic and environmental influence on mother and child behavior: The family system as the unity of analyses. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 1073–1087.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miyake, H., Nagashima, K., Onigata, K., Nagashima, T., Takano, Y., & Morikawa, A. (1999). Allelic variations of the D2 dopamine receptor gene in children with idiopathic short stature. Journal of Human Genetics, 44, 26–29.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, G. A., & Calkins, S. D. (2004). Infants' vagal regulation in the still-face paradigm is related to dyadic coordination of mother–infant interaction. Developmental Psychology, 40, 1068–1080.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, G. A., Hill-Soderlund, A. L., Propper, C. B., Calkins, S. D., Mills-Koonce, W., & Cox, M. J. (2009). Mother–infant vagal regulation in the face-to-face still-face paradigm is moderated by maternal sensitivity. Child Development, 80, 209–223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morrison, E., Rimm-Kauffman, S., & Pianta, R. C. (2003). A longitudinal study of mother–child interactions at school entry and social and academic outcomes in middle school. Journal of School Psychology, 41, 185–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munro, C. A., McCaul, M. E., Oswald, L. M., Wong, D. F., Zhou, Y., Brasic, J., et al. (2006). Striatal dopamine release and family history of alcoholism. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 30, 1143–1151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neville, M. J., Johnstone, E. C., & Walton, R. T. (2004). Identification and characterization of ANKK1: A novel kinase gene closely linked to DRD2 on chromosome band 11q23.1. Human Mutation, 23, 540–545.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newman, R. S. (1998). Students' help seeking during problem solving: Influences of personal and contextual achievement goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 9, 644–658.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2002). Early child care and children's development prior to school entry: Results from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care. American Education Research Journal, 39, 133–164.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Noble, E. P. (2003). D2 dopamine receptor gene in psychiatric and neurologic disorders and its phenotypes. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 116B, 103–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noble, E. P., Ozkaragoz, T. Z., Ritchie, T. L., Zhang, X., Belin, T. R., & Sparkes, R. S. (1998). D2 and D4 dopamine receptor polymorphisms and personality. American Journal of Medical Genetics: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 81, 257–267.3.0.CO;2-E>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noble, E. P., Syndulko, K., Fitch, R. J., Ritchie, T., Bohlman, M. C., Guth, P., et al. (1994). D2 dopamine receptor Taq1A alleles in medically ill alcoholic and nonalcoholic patients. Alcohol, 29, 729–744.Google Scholar
Normandeau, S., & Guay, F. (1998). Preschool behavior and first-grade school achievement: The mediational role of cognitive self-control. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 111–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ollendick, T. H., Weist, M. D., Borden, M., & Greene, R. W. (1992). Sociometric status and academic, behavioral, and psychological adjustment: A five-year longitudinal study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 80–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olson, S. L., Bates, J. E., Sandy, J. M., & Lanthier, R. (2000). Early developmental precursors of externalizing behavior in middle childhood and adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 119–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palinsin, H. A. (1986). Preschool temperament and performance on achievement tests. Developmental Psychology, 22, 766–770.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Panskepp, J. (1986). The neurochemistry of behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 37, 77–107.Google Scholar
Parke, R., Burks, V., Carson, J., Neville, B., & Boyum, L. (1994). Family–peer relationships: A tripartite model. In Parke, R. D. & Kellam, S. G. (Eds.), Exploring family relationships with other social contexts (pp. 115–145). New York: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Parke, R. D., Ornstein, P. A., Rieser, J. J., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (1994). A century of developmental psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pérez de Castro, I., Ibáñez, A., Torres, P., Sáiz-Ruiz, J., & Fernández-Piqueras, J. (1997). Genetic association study between pathological gambling and a functional DNA polymorphism at the D4 receptor gene. Pharmacogenetics, 7, 345–348.Google Scholar
Pianta, R. C., & Harbers, K. L. (1996). Observing mother and child behavior in a problem-solving situation at school entry: Relations with academic achievement. Journal of School Psychology, 34, 307–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pianta, R. C., Smith, N., & Reeve, R. E. (1991). Observing mother and child behavior in a problem-solving situation at school entry: Relations with classroom adjustment. School Psychology Quarterly, 6, 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plomin, R., DeFries, J., & Loehlin, J. (1977). Genotype–environment interaction and correlation in the analysis of human behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 309–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plomin, R., & Rutter, M. (1998). Child development, molecular genetics, and what to do with genes once they are found. Child Development, 69, 1223–1242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pohjalainen, T., Rinne, J. O., Nagren, K., Lehikoinen, P., Anttila, K., Syvalahti, E. K. G., et al. (1998). The A1 allele of the human D2 dopamine receptor gene predicts low D2 receptor availability in healthy volunteers. Molecular Psychiatry, 3, 256–260.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Propper, C., & Moore, G. A. (2006). The influence of parenting on infant emotionality: A multilevel psychobiological perspective. Developmental Review, 26, 427–460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Propper, C., Moore, G. A, Mills-Koonce, W. R., Calkins, S. D., Carbone, M. A., & Cox, M. (2008). Gene–environment contributions to the development of infant vagal reactivity: The interaction of dopamine and maternal sensitivity. Child Development, 79, 1377–1394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Propper, C. C., Willoughby, M. M., Halpern, C. T., Carbone, M. A., & Cox, M. M. (2007). Parenting quality, DRD4, and the prediction of externalizing and internalizing behaviors in early childhood. Developmental Psychobiology, 49, 619–632.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raver, C. (2004). Placing emotional self-regulation in sociocultural and socioeconomic contexts. Child Development, 75, 346–353.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., Pianta, R. C., & Cox, M. J. (2000). Teachers' judgments of problems in the transition to kindergarten. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 15, 147–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Risi, S., Gerhardstein, R., & Kistner, J. (2003). Children's classroom peer relationships and subsequent educational outcomes. Journal of Clinical & Adolescent Psychology, 32, 351–361.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (2006). Implications of resilience concepts for scientific understanding. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 1–12.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2006). Gene–environment interplay and psychopathology: Multiple varieties but real effects. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 226–261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M., & Silberg, J. (2002). Gene–environment interplay in relation to emotional and behavioral disturbance. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 463–490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scarr, S., & McCartney, K. (1983). How people make their own environments: A theory of genotype → environment effects. Child Development, 54, 424–435.Google Scholar
Schmidt, L. A., Fox, N. A., Rubin, K. H., Hu, S., & Hamer, D. H. (2002). Molecular genetics of shyness and aggression in preschoolers. Personality and Individual Differences, 33, 227–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shamir-Essakow, G., Ungerer, J. A., Rapee, R. M., & Safier, R. (2004). Caregiving representations of mothers of behaviorally inhibited and uninhibited preschool children. Developmental Psychology, 40, 899–910.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shanahan, M. J., Erickson, L. D., Vaisey, S., & Smollen, A. (2007). Helping relationships and genetic propensities: A combinatoric study of DRD2, mentoring, and educational continuation. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 10, 285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shanahan, M. J., Vaisey, S., Erickson, L. D., & Smolen, A. (2008). Environmental contingencies and genetic predispositions: Social capital, educational continuation, and a dopamine receptor polymorphism. American Journal of Sociology, 114, 260–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Owens, E. B., Giovannelli, J., & Winslow, E. (2001). Infant and toddler pathways leading to early externalizing disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 36–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shields, A. M., & Cicchetti, D. (1997). Emotion regulation in school-age children: The development of a new criterion Q-sort scale. Developmental Psychology, 33, 906–916.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shields, A., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). Reactive aggression among maltreated children: The contributions of attention and emotion dysregulation. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27, 381–395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shields, A. M., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Parental maltreatment and emotion dysregulation as risk factors for bullying and victimization in middle childhood. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 30, 349–363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shields, P., Lerman, C., Audrain, J., Main, D., Boyd, N., & Caporaso, N. (1998). Dopamine D4 receptors and the risk of cigarette smoking in African Americans and Caucasians. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers, and Prevention, 7, 453–458.Google ScholarPubMed
Smith, T. F. (2010). Meta-analysis of the heterogeneity in association of DRD4 7-repeat allele and AD/HD: Stronger association with AD/HD combined type. American Journal of Medical Genetics B: Neuropsychiatry Genetics, 153B, 1189–1199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spangler, G., & Grossmann, K. E. (1993). Biobehavioral organization insecurely and insecurely attached infants. Child Development, 64, 1439–1450.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spangler, G., Schiechle, M., Ilg, U., Maier, U., & Ackerman, C. (1994). Maternal sensitivity as an external organizer for biobehavioral regulation in infancy. Developmental Psychobiology, 27, 425–437.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stipek, D., & Ryan, R. (1997). Economically disadvantaged preschoolers: Ready to learn by further to go. Developmental Psychology, 33, 711–723.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suhara, T., Yasuno, F., Sudo, Y., Yamamoto, M., Inoue, M., Okubo, Y., et al. (2001). Dopamine D2 receptors in the insular cortex and the personality trait of novelty seeking. NeuroImage, 13, 891–895.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sunohara, G. A., Roberts, W., Malone, M., Schachar, R. J., Tannock, R., Basile, V. S., et al. . (2000). Linkage of the dopamine D4 receptor gene and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1537–1542.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of a definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2–3, Serial No. 240), 25–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thompson, R. A. (1997). Sensitivity and security: New questions to ponder. Child Development, 68, 595–597.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van den Boom, D. C. (1994). The influence of temperament and mothering on attachment and exploration: An experimental manipulation of sensitive responsiveness among lower-class mothers with irritable infants. Child Development, 65, 1457–1477.Google ScholarPubMed
van den Boom, D. C. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: Next steps for developmentalists. Child Development, 68, 592–594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Welsh, M., Parke, R. D., Widaman, K., & O'Neil, R. (2001). Linkages between children's social and academic competence: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of School Psychology, 39, 463–482.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiers, R. W., Sergeant, J. A., & Gunning, W. B. (1994). Psychological mechanisms of enhanced risk of addiction in children of alcoholics: A dual pathway? Acta Paediatrica, 404(Suppl.), 9–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, S., & McGee, R. (1994). Reading attainment and juvenile delinquency. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 441–459.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wise, R. A. (2004). Dopamine, learning, and motivation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5, 483–494.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Woodcock, R. W., McGrew, K., & Mather, N. (2001). The Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Achievement (3rd ed.). Itasca, IL: Riverside.Google Scholar
Zhang, Y., Bertolino, A., Fazio, L., Blasi, G., Rampino, A., Romano, R. et al. (2007). Polymorphisms in human dopamine D2 receptor gene affect gene expression, splicing, and neuronal activity during working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104, 20552–20557.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zukerman, M. (1994). Impulsive unsocialized sensation seeking: The biological foundations of a basic dimension of personality. In Bates, J. & Wachs, T. (Eds.), Temperament: Individual differences at the interface of biology and behavior (pp. 219–255). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar