Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T09:33:32.510Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Nurturant-involved parenting and adolescent substance use: Examining an internalizing pathway through adolescent social anxiety symptoms and substance refusal efficacy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 December 2017

Bridget B. Weymouth ,
Gregory M. Fosco  and
Mark E. Feinberg
Bridget B. Weymouth*
Affiliation:
Pennsylvania State University
Gregory M. Fosco
Affiliation:
Pennsylvania State University
Mark E. Feinberg
Affiliation:
Pennsylvania State University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Bridget B. Weymouth, Methodology Center, Pennsylvania State University, 404 Health and Human Development Building, University Park, PA 16802; E-mail: bbw1@psu.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Research has clearly established the important role of parents in preventing substance use among early adolescents. Much of this work has focused on deviance (e.g., antisocial behavior, delinquency, and oppositional behavior) as a central pathway linking parenting behaviors and early adolescent substance use. This study proposed an alternative pathway; using a four-wave longitudinal design, we examined whether nurturant-involved parenting (Fall sixth grade) was inversely associated with adolescent drunkenness, marijuana use, and cigarette use (eighth grade) through social anxiety symptoms (Spring sixth grade) and subsequent decreases in substance refusal efficacy (seventh grade). Nurturant-involved parenting is characterized by warmth, supportiveness, low hostility, and low rejection. Analyses were conducted with a sample of 687 two-parent families. Results indicated that adolescents who were in families where fathers exhibited lower levels of nurturant-involved parenting experienced subsequent increases in social anxiety symptoms and decreased efficacy to refuse substances, which in turn was related to more frequent drunkenness, cigarette use, and marijuana use. Indirect effects are discussed. Findings were not substantiated for mothers’ parenting. Adolescent gender did not moderate associations. The results highlight an additional pathway through which parenting influences youth substance use and links social anxiety symptoms to reduced substance refusal efficacy.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 31 , Special Issue 1: The effect of maltreatment experiences on maltreating and dysfunctional parenting: A search for mechanisms , February 2019 , pp. 247 - 260
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This project was supported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01 DA013709), the Karl R. and Diane Wendle Fink Early Career Professorship for the Study of Families, and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health under award numbers P50 DA039838 and T32DA017629. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institute on Drug Abuse or the National Institutes of Health. We gratefully acknowledge the contributions to the success of this project by the participating youth and families and the PROSPER staff.

References

Adachi, P., & Willoughby, T. (2015). Interpreting effect sizes when controlling for stability effects in longitudinal autoregressive models: Implications for psychological science. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 12, 116–128. doi:10.1080/17405629.2014.963549Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. S. (1989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44, 709–716. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.44.4.709Google Scholar
Bandura, A. (1986). The explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4, 359–373.Google Scholar
Beach, S. R., Lei, M. K., Brody, G. H., Yu, T., & Philibert, R. A. (2014). Nonsupportive parenting affects telomere length in young adulthood among African Americans: Mediation through substance use. Journal of Family Psychology, 28, 967–972. doi:10.1037/fam0000039Google Scholar
Berg, N., Kiviruusu, O., Karvonen, S., Kestilä, L., Lintonen, T., Rahkonen, O., & Huurre, T. (2013). A 26-year follow-up study of heavy drinking trajectories from adolescence to mid-adulthood and adult disadvantage. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 48, 452–457.Google Scholar
Bögels, S., Stevens, J., & Majdandžić, M. (2011). Parenting and social anxiety: Fathers’ versus mothers’ influence on their children's anxiety in ambiguous social situations. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 599–606.Google Scholar
Bögels, S. M., & Perotti, E. C. (2011). Does father know best? A formal model of the paternal influence on childhood social anxiety. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20, 171–181.Google Scholar
Bögels, S. M., van Oosten, A., Muris, P., & Smulders, D. (2001). Familial correlates of social anxiety in children and adolescents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 273–287.Google Scholar
Botvin, G. J., Schinke, S. P., Epstein, J. A., Diaz, T., & Botvin, E. M. (1995). Effectiveness of culturally focused and generic skills training approaches to alcohol and drug abuse prevention among minority adolescents: Two-year follow-up results. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 9, 183–194. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.9.3.18Google Scholar
Brody, G. H., & Ge, X. (2001). Linking parenting processes and self-regulation to psychological functioning and alcohol use during early adolescence. Journal of Family Psychology, 15, 82–94. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.15.1.82Google Scholar
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In Bollen, K. A. & Long, J. S. (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Bruch, M. A., Rivet, K. M., Heimberg, R. G., & Levin, M. A. (1997). Shyness, alcohol expectancies, and drinking behavior: Replication and extension of a suppressor effect. Personality and Individual Differences, 22, 193–200.Google Scholar
Buckner, J. D., Heimberg, R. G., & Schmidt, N. B. (2011). Social anxiety and marijuana-related problems: The role of social avoidance. Addictive Behaviors, 36, 129–132.Google Scholar
Buckner, J. D., & Turner, R. J. (2009). Social anxiety disorder as a risk factor for alcohol use disorders: A prospective examination of parental and peer influences. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 100, 128–137.Google Scholar
Buckner, J. D., & Vinci, C. (2013). Smoking and social anxiety: The roles of gender and smoking motives. Addictive Behaviors, 38, 2388–2391.Google Scholar
Burke, R. S., & Stephens, R. S. (1997). Effect of anxious affect on drinking self-efficacy in college students. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 11, 65–75. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.11.1.65Google Scholar
Cerdá, M., Moffitt, T. E., Meier, M. H., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Ramrakha, S., … Caspi, A. (2016). Persistent cannabis dependence and alcohol dependence represent risks for midlife economic and social problems: A longitudinal cohort study. Clinical Psychological Science, 4, 1028–1046. doi:10.1177/2167702616630958Google Scholar
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 233–255. doi:10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5Google Scholar
Choi, H. J., Krieger, J. L., & Hecht, M. L. (2013). Reconceptualizing efficacy in substance use prevention research: Refusal response efficacy and drug resistance self-efficacy in adolescent substance use. Health Communication, 28, 40–52. doi:10.1080/10410236.2012.720245Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597–600.Google Scholar
Conger, R. D., Conger, K. J., Elder, G. H., Lorenz, F. O., Simons, R. L., & Whitbeck, L. B. (1992). A family process model of economic hardship and adjustment of early adolescent boys. Child Development, 63, 526–541.Google Scholar
Connor, J. P., George, S. M., Gullo, M. J., Kelly, A. B., & Young, R. M. (2011). A prospective study of alcohol expectancies and self-efficacy as predictors of young adolescent alcohol misuse. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 46, 161–169. doi:10.1093/alcalc/agr004Google Scholar
Connor, J. P., Gullo, M. J., Feeney, G. F., Kavanagh, D. J., & Young, R. M. (2014). The relationship between cannabis outcome expectancies and cannabis refusal self-efficacy in a treatment population. Addiction, 109, 111–119.Google Scholar
Crockett, L. J., Raffaelli, M., & Shen, Y. L. (2006). Linking self-regulation and risk proneness to risky sexual behavior: Pathways through peer pressure and early substance use. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16, 503–525. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2006.00505.xGoogle Scholar
Crouter, A. C., & McHale, S. M. (1993). Temporal rhythms in family life: Seasonal variation in the relation between parental work and family processes. Developmental Psychology, 29, 198–205.Google Scholar
Derogatis, L. R. (1977). SCL-90: Administration, scoring and procedure manual for the revised version. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.Google Scholar
Dishion, T. J., & Owen, L. D. (2002). A longitudinal analysis of friendships and substance use: Bidirectional influence from adolescence to adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 38, 480–491.Google Scholar
Dollinger, S. J., & Malmquist, D. (2009). Reliability and validity of single-item self-reports: With special relevance to college students' alcohol use, religiosity, study, and social life. Journal of General Psychology, 136, 231–242.Google Scholar
Donaldson, S. I., Piccinin, A. M., Graham, J. W., & Hansen, W. B. (1995). Resistance-skills training and onset of alcohol use: Evidence for beneficial and potentially harmful effects in public schools. Health Psychology, 14, 291–300.Google Scholar
Ecker, A. H., & Buckner, J. D. (2014). Cannabis use behaviors and social anxiety: The roles of perceived descriptive and injunctive social norms. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 75, 74–82.Google Scholar
Elkins, S. R., Fite, P. J., Moore, T. M., Lochman, J. E., & Wells, K. C. (2014). Bidirectional effects of parenting and youth substance use during the transition to middle and high school. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 28, 475–486.Google Scholar
Elliot, D. S., Ageton, S. S., Huizinga, D., Knowles, B. A., & Canter, R. J. (1983). The prevalence and incidence of delinquency behavior: 1976–1980. National Estimates of delinquency behavior by sex, race social class and other selected variable (National Youth Survey Report No. 26). Boulder, CO: Behavioral Research Institute.Google Scholar
Fagan, J., Day, R., Lamb, M. E., & Cabrera, N. J. (2014). Should researchers conceptualize differently the dimensions of parenting for fathers and mothers? Journal of Family Theory & Review, 6, 390–405. doi:10.1111/jftr.12044Google Scholar
Festa, C. C., & Ginsburg, G. S. (2011). Parental and peer predictors of social anxiety in youth. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 42, 291–306. doi:10.1007/s10578-011-0215-8Google Scholar
Fosco, G. M., & Feinberg, M. E. (in press). Interparental conflict and long-term adolescent substance use trajectories: Examining threat appraisals as a mechanism of risk. Journal of Family Psychology.Google Scholar
Gilles, D. M., Turk, C. L., & Fresco, D. M. (2006). Social anxiety, alcohol expectancies, and self-efficacy as predictors of heavy drinking in college students. Addictive Behaviors, 31, 388–398. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.05.020Google Scholar
Gonzales, N. A., Cauce, A. M., & Mason, C. A. (1996). Interobserver agreement in the assessment of parental behavior and parent-adolescent conflict: African American mothers, daughters, and independent observers. Child Development, 67, 1483–1498.Google Scholar
Groh, A. M., Fearon, R. P., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Steele, R. D., & Roisman, G. I. (2014). The significance of attachment security for children's social competence with peers: A meta-analytic study. Attachment and Human Development, 16, 103–136. doi:10.1080/14616734.2014.883636Google Scholar
Hawes, D. J., & Dadds, M. R. (2006). Assessing parenting practices through parent-report and direct observation during parent-training. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15, 554–567. doi:10.1007/s10826-006-9029-xGoogle Scholar
Heimberg, R. G., Brozovich, F. A., & Rapee, R. M. (2010). A cognitive-behavioral model of social anxiety disorder: Update and extension. In Stefan, G. & Hofmann, P. M. (Eds.), Social anxiety: Clinical, developmental, and social perspectives (pp. 395–422). London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Hiemstra, M., Otten, R., & Engels, R. C. (2012). Smoking onset and the time-varying effects of self-efficacy, environmental smoking, and smoking-specific parenting by using discrete-time survival analysis. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 35, 240–251. doi:10.1007/s10865-011-9355-3Google Scholar
Hingson, R. W., Edwards, E. M., Heeren, T., & Rosenbloom, D. (2009). Age of drinking onset and injuries, motor vehicle crashes, and physical fights after drinking and when not drinking. Alcoholism, 33, 783–790. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.00896.xGoogle Scholar
Holmbeck, G. N., Paikoff, R. L., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1995). Parenting adolescents. In Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 1. Children and parenting (pp. 91–118). Hove: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118Google Scholar
Hussong, A. M., Jones, D. J., Stein, G. L., Baucom, D. H., & Boeding, S. (2011). An internalizing pathway to alcohol use and disorder. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 25, 390–404. doi:10.1037/a0024519Google Scholar
Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2011). Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975–2010: Vol. II. College Students & Adults Ages 19–50. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research.Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593–602. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.593Google Scholar
Kingery, J. N., Erdley, C. A., & Marshall, K. C. (2011). Peer acceptance and friendship as predictors of early adolescents' adjustment across the middle school transition. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 57, 215–243. doi:10.1353/mpq.2011.0012Google Scholar
Knappe, S., Beesdo-Baum, K., Fehm, L., Lieb, R., & Wittchen, H. U. (2012). Characterizing the association between parenting and adolescent social phobia. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26, 608–616.Google Scholar
Komro, K. A., Perry, C. L., Williams, C. L., Stigler, M. H., Farbakhsh, K., & Veblen-Mortenson, S. (2001). How did Project Northland reduce alcohol use among adolescents? Analysis of mediating variables. Health Education Research, 16, 59–70. doi:10.1093/her/16.1.59Google Scholar
Kretschmer, T., Sentse, M., Meeus, W., Verhulst, F. C., Veenstra, R., & Oldehinkel, A. J. (2016). Configurations of adolescents' peer experiences: Associations with parent–child relationship quality and parental problem behavior. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 26, 474–491. doi:10.1111/jora.12206Google Scholar
Lac, A., Alvaro, E. M., Crano, W. D., & Siegel, J. T. (2009). Pathways from parental knowledge and warmth to adolescent marijuana use: An extension to the theory of planned behavior. Prevention Science, 10, 22–32. doi:10.1007/s11121-008-0111-zGoogle Scholar
La Greca, A. M., & Lopez, N. (1998). Social anxiety among adolescents: Linkages with peer relations and friendships. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 83–94.Google Scholar
Laible, D. J., & Carlo, G. (2004). The differential relations of maternal and paternal support and control to adolescent social competence, self-worth, and sympathy. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19, 759–782. doi:10.1177/0743558403260094Google Scholar
Leung, R. K., Toumbourou, J. W., & Hemphill, S. A. (2014). The effect of peer influence and selection processes on adolescent alcohol use: A systematic review of longitudinal studies. Health Psychology Review, 8, 426–457. doi:10.1080/17437199.2011.587961Google Scholar
Lieb, R., Wittchen, H., Höfler, M., Fuetsch, M., Stein, M. B., & Merikangas, K. R. (2000). Parental psychopathology, parenting styles, and the risk of social phobia in offspring: A prospective-longitudinal community study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 859–866. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.9.85Google Scholar
Lieberman, M., Doyle, A. B., & Markiewicz, D. (1999). Developmental patterns in security of attachment to mother and father in late childhood and early adolescence: Associations with peer relations. Child Development, 70, 202–213. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00015Google Scholar
Lillehoj, C. J., Trudeau, L., Spoth, R., & Wickrama, K. A. S. (2004). Internalizing, social competence, and substance initiation: Influence of gender moderation and a preventive intervention. Substance Use and Misuse, 39, 963–991.Google Scholar
Lynskey, M., & Hall, W. (2000). The effects of adolescent cannabis use on educational attainment: A review. Addiction, 95, 1621–1630. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.951116213.xGoogle Scholar
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 99–128. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr3901_4Google Scholar
Mak, H. W., Fosco, G. M., & Feinberg, M. E. (in press). The role of family for youth friendships: Examining a social anxiety mechanism. Journal of Youth and Adolescence.Google Scholar
Marschall-Lévesque, S., Castellanos-Ryan, N., Vitaro, F., & Séguin, J. R. (2014). Moderators of the association between peer and target adolescent substance use. Addictive Behaviors, 39, 48–70. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.09.025Google Scholar
McDonald, R. P., & Ho, M. H. R. (2002). Principles and practice in reporting structural equation analyses. Psychological Methods, 7, 64–82. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.64Google Scholar
Miech, R. A., Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2015). Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975–2014: Vol. I. Secondary school students. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research.Google Scholar
Miers, A. C., Blöte, A. W., De Rooij, M., Bokhorst, C. L., & Westenberg, P. M. (2013). Trajectories of social anxiety during adolescence and relations with cognition, social competence, and temperament. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 97–110. doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9651-6Google Scholar
Moss, H. B., Chen, C. M., & Yi, H. Y. (2014). Early adolescent patterns of alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana polysubstance use and young adult substance use outcomes in a nationally representative sample. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 136, 51–62. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.12.011Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2013). Mplus 7.11. Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Odgers, C. L., Caspi, A., Nagin, D. S., Piquero, A. R., Slutske, W. S., Milne, B. J., … Moffitt, T. E. (2008). Is it important to prevent early exposure to drugs and alcohol among adolescents? Psychological Science, 19, 1037–1044.Google Scholar
Padilla-Walker, L. M., Nelson, L. J., Madsen, S. D., & Barry, C. M. (2008). The role of perceived parental knowledge on emerging adults’ risk behaviors. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 847–859.Google Scholar
Parke, R. D. (2013). Gender differences and similarities in parental behavior. In Bradford Wilcox, W. & Kovner Kline, K. (Eds.), Gender and parenthood: Natural and social scientific perspectives (pp. 120–163). New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B., & Dishion, T. J. (1992). Antisocial boys: A social interactional approach. Eugene, OR: Castalia.Google Scholar
Patton, G. C., Coffey, C., Lynskey, M. T., Reid, S., Hemphill, S., Carlin, J. B., & Hall, W. (2007). Trajectories of adolescent alcohol and cannabis use into young adulthood. Addiction, 102, 607–615. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01728.xGoogle Scholar
Piko, B. F., & Balázs, M. Á. (2012). Authoritative parenting style and adolescent smoking and drinking. Addictive Behaviors, 37, 353–356.Google Scholar
Pires, P., & Jenkins, J. M. (2007). A growth curve analysis of the joint influences of parenting affect, child characteristics and deviant peers on adolescent illicit drug use. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 3, 169–183. doi:10.1007/s10964-006-9127-5Google Scholar
Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., & Hayes, A. F. (2007). Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42, 185–227.Google Scholar
Redmond, C., Spoth, R. L., Shin, C., Schainker, L. M., Greenberg, M. T., & Feinberg, M. (2009). Long-term protective factor outcomes of evidence-based interventions implemented by community teams through a community–university partnership. Journal of Primary Prevention, 30, 513–530. doi:10.1007/s10935-009-0189-5Google Scholar
Rhee, S. H., Hewitt, J. K., Young, S. E., Corley, R. P., Crowley, T. J., & Stallings, M. C. (2003). Genetic and environmental influences on substance initiation, use, and problem use in adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 1256–1264. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.60.12.1256Google Scholar
Scaini, S., Belotti, R., & Ogliari, A. (2014). Genetic and environmental contributions to social anxiety across different ages: A meta-analytic approach to twin data. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 28, 650–656.Google Scholar
Scheier, L. M., Botvin, G. J., Diaz, T., & Griffin, K. W. (1999). Social skills, competence, and drug refusal efficacy as predictors of adolescent alcohol use. Journal of Drug Education, 29, 251–278.Google Scholar
Schinke, S. P., Fang, L., & Cole, K. C. (2008). Substance use among early adolescent girls: Risk and protective factors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 43, 191–194.Google Scholar
Schlomer, G. L., Bauman, S., & Card, N. A. (2010). Best practices for missing data management in counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57, 1–10.Google Scholar
Schwartz, S. J., Zamboanga, B. L., Ravert, R. D., Kim, S. Y., Weisskirch, R. S., Williams, M. K., … Finley, G. E. (2009). Perceived parental relationships and health-risk behaviors in college-attending emerging adults. Journal of Marriage and Family, 71, 727–740.Google Scholar
Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.Google Scholar
Sher, K. J. (1991). Children of alcoholics: A critical appraisal of theory and research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Siennick, S. E., Widdowson, A. O., Woessner, M., & Feinberg, M. E. (2016). Internalizing symptoms, peer substance use, and substance use initiation. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 26, 645–657. doi:10.1111/jora.12215Google Scholar
Simons, R. L., Johnson, C., Beaman, J., & Conger, R. D. (1993). Explaining women's double jeopardy: Factors that mediate the association between harsh treatment as a child and violence by a husband. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 55, 713–723.Google Scholar
Spoth, R., Greenberg, M., Bierman, K., & Redmond, C. (2004). PROSPER community–university partnership model for public education systems: Capacity-building for evidence-based, competence-building prevention. Prevention Science, 5, 31–39. doi:10.1023/b:prev.0000013979.52796.8bGoogle Scholar
Spoth, R., Guyll, M., Lillehoj, C. J., Redmond, C., & Greenberg, M. (2007). Prosper study of evidence-based intervention implementation quality by community–university partnerships. Journal of Community Psychology, 35, 981–999.Google Scholar
Spoth, R., Redmond, C., & Shin, C. (1998). Direct and indirect latent-variable parenting outcomes of two universal family-focused preventive interventions: Extending a public health-oriented research base. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 385–399. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.66.2.385Google Scholar
Steinberg, L., & Monahan, K. C. (2007). Age differences in resistance to peer influence. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1531–1543. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1531Google Scholar
Taylor, A. B., MacKinnon, D. P., & Tein, J. Y. (2008). Tests of the three-path mediated effect. Organizational Research Methods, 11, 241–269.Google Scholar
Tein, J. Y., Roosa, M. W., & Michaels, M. (1994). Agreement between parent and child reports on parental behaviors. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 341–355.Google Scholar
Tillfors, M., & van Zalk, N. (2015). Easier to accelerate than to slow down: Contributions of developmental neurobiology for the understanding of adolescent social anxiety. In Ranta, K., La Greca, A. M., Garcia-Lopez, L., & Marttunen, M. (Eds.), Social anxiety and phobia in adolescents: Development, manifestation and intervention strategies (pp. 71–94). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International.Google Scholar
van Oort, F. V. A., Greaves-Lord, K., Ormel, J., Verhulst, F. C., & Huizink, A. C. (2011). Risk indicators of anxiety throughout adolescence: The TRAILS study. Depression and Anxiety, 28, 485–494. doi:10.1002/da.20818Google Scholar
van Ryzin, M. J., Fosco, G. M., & Dishion, T. J. (2012). Family and peer predictors of substance use from early adolescence to early adulthood: An 11-year prospective analysis. Addictive Behaviors, 37, 1314–1324. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.06.020Google Scholar
Velleman, R. D., Templeton, L. J., & Copello, A. G. (2005). The role of the family in preventing and intervening with substance use and misuse: A comprehensive review of family interventions, with a focus on young people. Drug and Alcohol Review, 24, 93–109. doi:10.1080/09595230500167478Google Scholar
Whiteman, S. D., Jensen, A. C., & Maggs, J. L. (2013). Similarities in adolescent siblings’ substance use: Testing competing pathways of influence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 74, 104–113. doi:10.15288/jsad.2013.74.104Google Scholar
Williams, C. L., Toomey, T. L., McGovern, P. G., Wagenaar, A. C., & Perry, C. L. (1995). Development, reliability, and validity of self-reported alcohol-use measures with young adolescents. Journal of Child and Adolescent Substance Abuse, 4, 17–40.Google Scholar
Wittchen, H. U., & Fehm, L. (2001). Epidemiology, patterns of comorbidity, and associated disabilities of social phobia. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 24, 617–641.Google Scholar
Wynn, S. R., Schulenberg, J., Kloska, D. D., & Laetz, V. B. (1997). The mediating influence of refusal skills in preventing adolescent alcohol misuse. Journal of School Health, 67, 390–395.Google Scholar
Wynn, S. R., Schulenberg, J., Maggs, J. L., & Zucker, R. A. (2000). Preventing alcohol misuse: The impact of refusal skills and norms. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 14, 36–47.Google Scholar
Zucker, R. A., Donovan, J. E., Masten, A. S., Mattson, M. E., & Moss, H. B. (2008). Early developmental processes and the continuity of risk for underage drinking and problem drinking. Pediatrics, 121, S252–S272. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-2243Google Scholar