Hostname: page-component-6bb9c88b65-9rk55 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-07-25T19:14:55.793Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Adapting to aging out: Profiles of risk and resilience among emancipated foster youth

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 April 2012

Tuppett M. Yates  and
Izabela K. Grey
Tuppett M. Yates*
Affiliation:
University of California, Riverside
Izabela K. Grey
Affiliation:
University of California, Riverside
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Tuppett M. Yates, Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521; E-mail: tuppett.yates@ucr.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This investigation employed latent profile analysis to identify distinct patterns of multiform competence among 164 emancipated foster youth (Mage = 19.67 years, SD = 1.12; 64% female). Fit indices and conceptual interpretation converged on a four-profile solution. A subset of emancipated youth evidenced a maladaptive profile (16.5%; n = 27), which was characterized by low educational competence, low occupational competence, low civic engagement, problematic interpersonal relationships, low self-esteem, and high depressive symptoms. However, the largest group of emancipated youth exhibited a resilient profile in which they were faring reasonably well in all domains despite marked adversity (47%; n = 77). Two additional groups evidenced discordant adjustment patterns wherein they exhibited high levels of psychological competence despite behavioral difficulties (i.e., internally resilient; 30%; n = 49) or significant emotional difficulties despite manifest competence (i.e., externally resilient; 6.5%; n = 11). The obtained profiles were validated against independent measures of behavioral and socioemotional adjustment. Exploratory analyses examined etiological differences across profiles with respect to child welfare variables, such as age at entry into care, placement disruption, reason for placement, and severity of child maltreatment. The findings highlight the need for multidimensional models of risk and resilience and illustrate the importance of heretofore underappreciated heterogeneity in the adaptive outcomes of emancipated foster youth.

Information

Type
Special Section Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 24 , Issue 2 , May 2012 , pp. 475 - 492
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Achenbach, T. M. (1990, 1997). Young Adult Self-Report. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Akaike, H. (1974). A new look at the statistical model identification. Transactions on Automatic Control, 19, 716–723.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ammerman, S. D., Ensign, J., Krizner, R., Meininger, E. T., Tornabene, M., Warf, C. W., et al. (2004). Homeless young adults ages 18–24: Examining service delivery adaptations. Nashville, TN: National Health Care for the Homeless Council, Inc.Google Scholar
Armsden, G. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (1987). The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment: Individual differences and their relationship to psychological well-being in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16, 427–454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Armsden, G. C., & Greenberg, M. T. (1988). Manual for the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment. Unpublished manuscript, University of Washington.Google Scholar
Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469–480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnett, J. J. (2004). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Arnett, J. J. (2007). Socialization in emerging adulthood: From the family to the wider world, from socialization to self-socialization. In Grusec, J. E. & Hastings, P. D. (Eds.), Handbook of socializiation: Theory and research. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). For better and for worse: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16, 300–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benedict, M. I., Zuravin, S., & Stallings, R. Y. (1996). Adult functioning of children who lived in kin versus nonrelative family foster homes. Child Welfare, 75, 529–549.Google ScholarPubMed
Bergman, L. R., & Magnusson, D. (1997). A person-oriented approach in research on developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 291–319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergman, L. R., & Trost, K. (2006). The person-oriented versus the variable-oriented approach: Are they complementary, opposites, or exploring different worlds? Merrill–Palmer Quarterly, 52, 601–632.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berlin, G., Furstenberg, F. F., & Waters, M. C. (2010). Transition to adulthood (Vol. 20). Princeton, NJ: Princeton–Brookings.Google Scholar
Biehal, N., & Wade, J. (1996). Looking back, looking forward: Care leavers, families and change. Children and Youth Services Review, 18, 425–445.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blascovich, J., & Tomaka, J. (1993). Measures of self-esteem. In Robinson, J. P., Shaver, P. R., & Wrightsman, L. S. (Eds.), Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes (3rd ed., pp. 115–160). Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.Google Scholar
Block, J. (1961/1978). The Q-sort method in personality assessment and psychiatric research. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Block, J. (1991). Prototypes for the California Adult Q-Set. Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Block, J. (2008). The Q-sort in character appraisal: Encoding subjective impressions of persons quantitatively. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1980). The role of ego-control and ego-resiliency in the organization of behavior. In Collins, W. A. (Ed.), The Minnesota symposia on child development: Development of cognition, affect, and social relations (Vol. 13, pp. 39–101). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Blome, W. W. (1997). What happens to foster kids: Educational experiences of a random sample of foster care youth and a matched group of non-foster care youth. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 14, 41–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blum, R. W., Harris, L. J., Resnick, M. D., & Rosenwinkle, K. (1989). Technical report on the Adolescent Health Survey. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Adolescent Health Program.Google Scholar
Blum, R. W., Resnick, M. D., & Bergeisen, L. G. (1989). The state of adolescent health in Minnesota. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Adolescent Health Program.Google Scholar
Boulet, J., & Boss, M. W. (1991). Reliability and validity of the Brief Symptom Inventory. Psychological Assessment, 3, 433–437.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowers, T. L., & Pantle, M. L. (1998). Shipley Institute for Living Scale and the Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test as screening instruments for intelligence. Assessment, 5, 187–195.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brandford, C., & English, D. (2004). Foster youth transition to independence study. Seattle, WA: Office of Children's Administration Research.Google Scholar
Bremner, J. D., Vermetten, E., & Mazure, C. M. (2000). Development and preliminary psychometric properties of an instrument for the measurement of childhood trauma: The Early Trauma Inventory. Depression and Anxiety, 12, 1–12.3.0.CO;2-W>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burley, M., & Halpern, M. (2001). Educational attainment of foster youth: Achievement and graduation outcomes for children in state care. Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Burt, K. B., & Masten, A. S. (2009). Development in the transition to adulthood: Vulnerabilities and opportunities. In Grant, J. E. & Potenza, M. N. (Eds.), Young adult mental health (pp. 5–18). New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
California Child Welfare Performance Indicators Project. (2011). Child Welfare Dynamic Report System. Retrieved December 18, 2011, from http://cssr.berkeley.edu/ucb_childwelfare/Google Scholar
Camp, B. W., & Morgan, L. J. (1984). Child-rearing attitudes and personality characteristics in adolescent mothers: Attitudes towards the infant. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 9, 57–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Casey Family Programs. (1999). The road to independence: Transitioning youth in foster care to independence. Seattle, WA: Casey Family Programs.Google Scholar
Casey Family Programs. (2003). Assessing the effects of foster care: Early results from the Casey National Alumni Study. Seattle, WA: Casey Family Programs.Google Scholar
Chapman, C., Laird, J., & KewalRamani, A. (2010). Trends in high school dropout and completion rates in the United States: 1972–2008 (NCES 2011–012). Retrieved December 18, 2011, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearchGoogle Scholar
Child Welfare Information Gateway. (2011). Foster care statistics 2009. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services, Children's Bureau.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Blender, J. A. (2004). A multiple-levels-of-analysis approach to the study of developmental processes in maltreated children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 101, 17325–17326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Curtis, W. J. (Eds.). (2007). A multilevel approach to resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 627–955.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1997). The role of self-organization in the promotion of resilience in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 797–815.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Valentino, K. (2007). Toward the application of a multiple-levels-of-analysis perspective to research in development and psychopathology. In Masten, A. S. (Ed.), Minnesota symposia on child psychology. Multilevel dynamics in developmental psychopathology: Pathways to the future (Vol. 34, pp. 243–284). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Collins, M. E. (2001). Transition to adulthood for vulnerable youths: A review of research and implications for policy. Social Service Review, 75, 271–291.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collins, W. A., & Sroufe, A. (1999). Capacity for intimate relationships: A developmental construction. In Furman, W., Brown, B. B., & Feiring, C. (Eds.), The development of romantic relationships in adolescence (pp. 125–147). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Courtney, M. E. (2009). The difficult transition to adulthood for foster youth in the US: Implications for the state as corporate parent. Social Policy Report, 23, 3–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Courtney, M. E., & Dworsky, A. (2006). Early outcomes for young adults transitioning from out-of-home care in the USA. Child and Family Social Work, 11, 209–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Courtney, M. E., Dworsky, A., Cusick, G. R., Havlicek, J., Perez, A., & Keller, T. (2007). Midwest evaluation of adult functioning of former foster youth: Outcomes at age 21. Chicago: University of Chicago, Chapin Hall Center for Children.Google Scholar
Courtney, M. E., Dworsky, A., Ruth, G., Keller, T., Havlicek, J., & Bost, N. (2005). Midwest evaluation of adult functioning of former foster youth: Outcomes at age 19. Chicago: University of Chicago, Chapin Hall Center for Children.Google Scholar
Courtney, M. E., Piliavin, I., Grogan-Kaylor, A., & Nesmith, A. (2001). Foster youth transition to adulthood: A longitudinal view of youth leaving care. Child Welfare, 80, 685–717.Google ScholarPubMed
Daining, C., & DePanfilis, D. (2007). Resilience of youth in transition from out-of-home care to adulthood. Children and Youth Services Review, 29, 1158–1178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Derogatis, L. R. (1983). SCL-90-R: Administration, scoring, and procedures manual II for the revised version: Towson, MD: Clinical Psychometric Research.Google Scholar
Derogatis, L. R. (1993). Brief Symptom Inventory: Administration, scoring, and procedures manual (4th ed.). Minneapolis, MN: NCS Pearson, Inc.Google Scholar
Derogatis, L. R., & Melisaratos, N. (1983). The Brief Symptom Inventory: An introductory report. Psychological Medicine, 13, 595–605.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dishion, T. J., & Connell, A. (2006). Adolescents' resilience as a self-regulatory process: Promising themes for linking intervention with developmental science. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 125–138.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dozier, M., Lindheim, O., & Ackerman, J. P. (2005). Attachment and biobehavioral catch-up: An intervention targeting empirically identified needs in foster infants. In Berlin, L. J., Ziv, Y., Amaya-Jackson, L., & Greenberg, M. T. (Eds.), Enhancing early attachments: Theory, research, intervention, and policy (pp. 178–194). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Drapeau, S., Saint-Jacque, M. C., Lepine, R., Begin, G., & Bernard, M. (2007). Processes that contribute to resilience among youth in foster care. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 977–999.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dudley, K. J., Li, X., Kobor, M. S., Kippin, T. E., & Bredy, T. W. (2011). Epigenetic mechanisms mediating vulnerability and resilience to psychiatric disorders. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1544–1551.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duke, N. N., Skay, C. L., Pettingell, S. L., & Borowsky, I. W. (2009). From adolescent connections to social capital: Predictors of civic engagement in young adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Health, 44, 161–168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duncan, G. J. (2008). What to make of “unexpected” pathways? Journal of Social Issues, 64, 213–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Egeland, B., Carlson, E., & Sroufe, L. A. (1993). Resilience as process. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 517–528.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Egeland, B., Lehn, L., Ostoja, E., Williams, F., & Kalkoske, M. (1994). Dating interview and coding scales. Unpublished manuscript, University of Minnesota.Google Scholar
English, A., Morreale, M. C., & Larsen, J. (2003). Access to health care for youth leaving foster care: Medicaid and SCHIP. Journal of Adolescent Health, 32S, 53–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farber, E. A., & Egeland, B. (1987). Invulnerability among abused and neglected children. In Anthony, E. J. & Cohler, B. (Eds.), The invulnerable child (pp. 253–288). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Farruggia, S. P., Greenberger, E., Chuansheng, C., & Heckhausen, J. (2006). Perceived social environment and adolescents' well-being and adjustment: Comparing a foster care sample with a matched sample. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 349–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feder, A., Nestler, E. J., & Charney, D. S. (2009). Psychobiology and molecular genetics of resilience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 446–457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Festinger, T. (1983). No one ever asked us. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Flanagan, C., & Levin, P. (2010). Civic engagement and the transition to adulthood. Future of Children, 20, 159–179.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Furr, R. M., Wagerman, S., & Funder, D. C. (2010). Personality as manifest in behavior: Direct behavioral observation using the revised Riverside Behavioral Q-sort (RBQ-3.0). In Agnew, C. R., Carlston, D. E., Graziano, W. G., & Kelly, J. R. (Eds.), Then a miracle occurs: Focusing on behavior in social psychological theory and research (pp. 186–204). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Garmezy, N. (1982). The case for the single case in research. New Directions for Methodology of Social and Behavioral Science, 13, 5–17.Google Scholar
Garmezy, N. (1985). Stress resistant children: The search for protective factors. In Stevenson, J. E. (Ed.), Recent research in developmental psychopathology (pp. 213–233). Oxford: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Garmezy, N. (1993). Children in poverty: Resilience despite risk. Psychiatry, 56, 127–136.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garmezy, N., & Masten, A. S. (1986). Stress, competence, and resilience: Common frontiers for therapist and psychopathologist. Behavior Therapy, 17, 500–521.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garmezy, N., & Neuchterlein, K. H. (1972). Invulnerable children: Fact and fiction of competence and disadvantage. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 42, 328–339.Google Scholar
Glaze, L. E. (2011). Correctional population in the United States, 2010. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.Google Scholar
Gottlieb, G., & Halpern, C. T. (2002). A relational view of causality in normal and abnormal development. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 421–435.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gralinski-Bakker, J. H., Hauser, S. T., Stott, C., Billings, R. L., & Allen, J. P. (2004). Markers of resilience and risk: Adult lives in a vulnerable population. Research in Human Development, 1, 291–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagenaars, J. A., & McCutcheon, A. L. (Eds.). (2002). Applied latent class analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harman, J. S., Childs, G. E., & Kelleher, K. J. (2000). Mental health care utilization and expenditures by children in foster care. Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine, 154, 1114–1117.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hauser, S. T. (1999). Understanding resilient outcomes: Adolescent lives across time and generations. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 9, 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hauser, S. T., & Allen, J. (2006). Overcoming adversity in adolescence: Narratives of resilience. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 26, 549–576.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Havighurst, R. J. (1952). Developmental tasks and education (2nd ed.). New York: David McKay Company, Inc.Google Scholar
Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education (3rd ed.). New York: David McKay Company, Inc.Google Scholar
Havlicek, J. (2011). Lives in motion: A review of former foster youth in the context of their experiences in the child welfare system. Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 1090–1100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hines, A. M., Merdigner, J., & Wyatt, P. (2005). Former foster youth attending college: Resilience and the transition to young adulthood. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75, 381–394.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hyson, D. M. (2002). Understanding adaptation to work in adulthood: A contextual developmental approach. In Settersten, R. A. & Owens, T. J. (Eds.), Advances in life course research: New frontiers in socialization (pp. 93–110). Oxford: Elsevier Science, Ltd.Google Scholar
Jackson, S., & Martin, P. Y. (1998). Surviving the care system: Education and resilience. Journal of Adolescence, 21, 569–583.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, L. (2011). The first three years after foster care: A longitudinal look at the adaptation of 16 youth to emerging adulthood. Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 1919–1929.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, H. B. (1999). Toward an understanding of resilience: A critical review of definitions and models. In Glantz, M. D. & Johnson, J. L. (Eds.), Resilience and development: Positive life adaptations (pp. 17–83). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Kaufman, J., Cook, A., Arny, L., Jones, B., & Pittinsky, T. (1994). Problems defining resiliency: Illustrations from the study of maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 215–229.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kools, S. M. (1997). Adolescent identity development in foster care. Family Relations, 46, 263–271.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leathers, S. J. (2006). Placement disruption and negative placement outcomes among adolescents in long-term foster care: The role of behavior problems. Child Abuse & Neglect, 30, 307–324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lengua, L. J. (2002). The contribution of emotionality and self-regulation to the understanding of children's response to multiple risk. Child Development, 73, 144–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Little, T. D., & Rubin, D. B. (1987). Statistical analysis with missing data. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Lo, Y., Mendell, N. R., & Rubin, D. B. (2001). Testing the number of components in a normal mixture. Biometrika, 88, 767–778.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luthar, S. S. (1991). Vulnerability and resilience: A study of high-risk adolescents. Child Development, 62, 600–616.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luthar, S. S. (2006). Resilience in development: A synthesis of research across five decades. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Risk, disorder, and adaptation (Vol. 3, 2nd ed., pp. 739–795). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71, 543–562.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luthar, S. S., & Cushing, G. (1999a). Measurement issues in the empirical study of resilience: An overview. In Glantz, M. D. & Johnson, J. L. (Eds.), Resilience and development: Positive life adaptations (pp. 129–160). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S., & Cushing, G. (1999b). Neighborhood influences and child development: A prospective study of substance abusers' offspring. Developmental Psychology, 11, 763–784.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luthar, S. S., Doernberger, C. H., & Zigler, E. (1993). Resilience is not a unidimensional construct: Insights from a prospective study of inner-city adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 703–717.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magnusson, D. (1995). Individual development: A holistic, integrated model. In Moen, P., Elder, G. H., & Luscher, K. (Eds.), Examining lives in context: Perspectives on the ecology of human development (pp. 19–60). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magnusson, D. (1999). On the individual: A person-oriented approach to developmental research. European Psychologist, 4, 205–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Major, B., Spencer, S., Schmader, T., Wolfe, C., & Crocker, J. (1998). Coping with negative stereotypes about intellectual performance: The role of psychological disengagement. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24, 34–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mangine, S. J., Royse, D., Wiehe, V. R., & Nietzel, M. T. (1990). Homelessness among adults raised as foster children: A survey of drop-in center users. Psychological Reports, 67, 739–745.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Massinga, R., & Pecora, P. J. (2004). Providing better opportunities for older children in the child welfare system. Future of Children, 14, 151–173.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56, 227–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S. (in press). Risk and resilience in development. In Zelazo, P. D. (Ed.), Oxford handbook of developmental psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., Burt, K. B., & Coatsworth, J. D. (2006). Competence and psychopathology in development. In Cicchetti, D., & Cohen, D. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (Vol. 3, 2nd ed., pp. 696–738). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., Burt, K. B., Roisman, G. I., Obradović, J., Long, J. D., & Tellegen, A. (2004). Resources and resilience in the transition to adulthood: Continuity and change. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 1071–1094.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Coatsworth, J. D. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environments. American Psychologist, 53, 205–220.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Garmezy, N. (1985). Risk, vulnerability, and protective factors in developmental psychopathology. In Lahey, B. B. & Kadin, A. E. (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 8, pp. 1–52). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., Garmezy, N., Tellegen, A., Pellegrini, D. S., Larkin, K., & Larsen, A. (1988). Competence and stress in school children: The moderating effects of individual and family qualities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 29, 745–764.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., Hubbard, J. J., Gest, S. D., Tellegen, A., Garmezy, N., & Ramirez, M. (1999). Competence in the context of adversity: Pathways to resilience and maladaptation from childhood to late adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 143–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCormick, C. M., Kuo, S. I.-C., & Masten, A. S. (2011). Developmental tasks across the lifespan. In Fingerman, K. L., Berg, C. A., Smith, J., & Antonucci, T. C. (Eds.), Handbook of lifespan development (pp. 117–140). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
McGee, R. A., Wolfe, D. A., Yuen, S. A., & Wilson, S. K. (1995). The measurement of maltreatment: A comparison of approaches. Child Abuse & Neglect, 19, 233–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGloin, J. M., & Widom, C. S. (2001). Resilience among abused and neglected children grown up. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 1021–1038.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McMillen, J. C., & Tucker, J. (1999). The status of older adolescents at exit from out-of-home care. Child Welfare, 78, 339–360.Google ScholarPubMed
Mendes, P., & Moslehuddin, B. (2006). From dependence to interdependence: Towards better outcomes for young people leaving state care. Child Abuse Review, 15, 110–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2010). Mplus user's guide. Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Nylund, K. L., Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. O. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 535–569.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Obradović, J., & Masten, A. S. (2007). Developmental antecedents of young adult civic engagement. Applied Developmental Science, 11, 2–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsson, C. A., Bond, L., Burns, J. M., Vella-Brodrick, D. A., & Sawyer, S. M. (2003). Adolescent resilience: A concept analysis. Journal of Adolescence, 26, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oosterman, M., De Schipper, J. C., Fisher, P., Dozier, M., & Schuengel, C. (2010). Autonomic reactivity in relation to attachment and early adversity among foster children. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 109–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Osgood, D. W., Foster, E. M., Flanagan, C., & Ruth, G. R. (Eds.). (2005). On your own without a net: The transition to adulthood for vulnerable populations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parker, G. R., Cowen, E. L., Work, W. C., & Wyman, P. A. (1990). Test correlates of stress resilience among urban school children. Journal of Primary Prevention, 11, 19–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pecora, P. J., Kessler, R. C., O'Brien, K., White, C. R., Williams, J., Hiripi, E., et al. (2006). Educational and employment outcomes of adults formerly placed in foster care: Results from the Northwest foster care alumni study. Children and Youth Services Review, 28, 1459–1481.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ramaswamy, V., Desarbo, W. S., Reibstein, D. J., & Robinson, W. T. (1993). An empirical pooling approach for estimating marketing mix elasticities with PIMS data. Marketing Science, 12, 103–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Resnick, M. D., Harris, L. J., & Blum, R. W. (1993). The impact of caring and connectedness on adolescent health and well-being. Journal of Paediatric Child Health, 29(Suppl. 1), S3–S9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riverside Accuracy Project. (2010). The Riverside Accuracy Project Q-Sorter Program [Computer software]. Retrieved January 1, 2009, from http://rap.ucr.edu/qsorter/Google Scholar
Roberts, D. (2002). Shattered bonds: The color of child welfare. New York: Civitas Books.Google Scholar
Roisman, G. I., Masten, A. S., Coatsworth, J. D., & Tellegen, A. (2004). Salient and emerging developmental tasks in the transition to adulthood. Child Development, 75, 123–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenberg, M. (1989). Society and the adolescent self-image (rev. ed.). Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.Google Scholar
Rubin, D. M., O'Reillu, A., Luan, X., & Localio, A. R. (2007). The impact of placement stability on behavioral well-being for children in foster care. Pediatrics, 119, 336–344.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (1990). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. In Rolf, J., Masten, A. S., Cicchetti, D., Nuechterlein, K. H., & Weintraub, S. (Eds.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 181–214). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M. (1996). Transitions and turning points in developmental psychopathology: As applied to the age span between childhood and mid-adulthood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 19, 603–626.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M. (2000). Children in substitute care: Some conceptual considerations and research implications. Children and Youth Services Review, 22, 685–703.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samuels, G. M., & Pryce, J. M. (2008). “What doesn't kill you makes you stronger”: Survivalist self-reliance as resilience and risk among young adults aging out of foster care. Children and Youth Services Review, 30, 1198–1210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schafer, J. L. (1997). Analysis of incomplete multivariate data (Vol. 72). Boca Raton, FL: Chapman & Hall/CRC.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schulenberg, J. E., Bryant, A. L., & O'Malley, P. M. (2004). Taking hold of some kind of life: How developmental tasks relate to trajectories of well-being during the transition to adulthood. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 1119–1140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schulenberg, J. E., Sameroff, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2004a). The transition to adulthood as a critical juncture in the course of psychopathology and mental health [Editorial]. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 799–806.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schulenberg, J. E., Sameroff, A., & Cicchetti, D. (Eds.). (2004b). Transition from adolescence to adulthood. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 799–1171.Google Scholar
Schwartz, G. (1978). Estimating the dimensions of a model. Annals of Statistics, 6, 461–464.Google Scholar
Sclove, L. S. (1987). Application of a model-selection criteria to some problems in multivariate analysis. Psychometrika, 52, 333–343.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shipley, W. C. (1940). A self administering scale for measuring intellectual impairment and deterioration. Journal of Psychology, 46, 336–377.Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1979). The coherence of individual development: Early care, attachment, and subsequent developmental issues. American Psychologist, 34, 834–841.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steele, C. M. (1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52, 613–629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stein, M. (1994). Leaving care: Education and career trajectories. Oxford Review of Education, 20, 349–360.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stein, M. (2006). Research review: Young people leaving care. Child and Family Social Work, 11, 273–279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stevens, M. C., Kaplan, R. F., & Bauer, L. O. (2001). Relationship of cognitive ability to the developmental course of antisocial behavior in substance-dependent patients. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biology Psychiatry, 25, 1523–1536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
US Department of Education. (2011). The condition of education 2011 (NCES 2011-033). Retrieved December 18, 2011, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearchGoogle Scholar
von Eye, A., & Bergman, L. R. (2003). Research strategies in developmental psychopathology: Dimensional identity and the person-oriented approach. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 553–580.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Waters, E., & Sroufe, L. A. (1983). Social competence as a developmental construct. Developmental Review, 3, 79–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werner, E. E. (1989). Vulnerability and resiliency: A longitudinal perspective. In Brambring, M., Sel, F. L., & Skowronek, H. (Eds.), Children at risk: Assessment, longitudinal research, and intervention (pp. 157–172). New York: Walter de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Windle, G., Bennett, K. M., & Noyes, J. (2011). A methodological review of resilience measurement scales. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 9, 8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wright, M. O., Masten, A. S., Northwood, A., & Hubbard, J. J. (1997). Long-term effects of massive trauma: Developmental and psychobiological perspectives. In Cicchetti, D. & Toth, S. L. (Eds.), Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology: Developmental perspectives on trauma (Vol. 8, pp. 181–225). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.Google Scholar
Wulczyn, F. H., & Brunner, H. K. (2001). Children in substitute care at age 16: Selected findings from the multistate data archive. Chicago: University of Chicago, Chapin Hall Center for Children.Google Scholar
Yates, T. M., Egeland, B., & Sroufe, L. A. (2003). Rethinking resilience: A developmental process perspective. In Luthar, S. S. (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 234–256). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Zachary, R. A., Paulson, M. J., & Gorsuch, R. L. (1985). Estimating WAIS IQ from the Shipley Institute of Living Scale using continuously age norms. Journal of Clinical Psychology 41, 820–830.3.0.CO;2-X>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zetlin, A. G., & Weinberg, L. A. (2004). Understanding the plight of foster youth and improving their educational opportunities. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28, 917–923.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., & Farley, G. K. (1988). The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52, 30–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar