Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-q99xh Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T19:41:17.913Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Adolescents from upper middle class communities: Substance misuse and addiction across early adulthood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 May 2017

Suniya S. Luthar ,
Phillip J. Small  and
Lucia Ciciolla
Suniya S. Luthar*
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Phillip J. Small
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
Lucia Ciciolla
Affiliation:
Arizona State University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Suniya S. Luthar, Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, 950 South McAllister Avenue, Tempe, AZ 85287-1104; E-mail: suniya.luthar@asu.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In this prospective study of upper middle class youth, we document frequency of alcohol and drug use, as well as diagnoses of abuse and dependence, during early adulthood. Two cohorts were assessed as high school seniors and then annually across 4 college years (New England Study of Suburban Youth younger cohort [NESSY-Y]), and across ages 23–27 (NESSY older cohort [NESSY-O]; ns = 152 and 183 at final assessments, respectively). Across gender and annual assessments, results showed substantial elevations, relative to norms, for frequency of drunkenness and using marijuana, stimulants, and cocaine. Of more concern were psychiatric diagnoses of alcohol/drug dependence: among women and men, respectively, lifetime rates ranged between 19%–24% and 23%–40% among NESSY-Os at age 26; and 11%–16% and 19%–27% among NESSY-Ys at 22. Relative to norms, these rates among NESSY-O women and men were three and two times as high, respectively, and among NESSY-Y, close to one among women but twice as high among men. Findings also showed the protective power of parents’ containment (anticipated stringency of repercussions for substance use) at age 18; this was inversely associated with frequency of drunkenness and marijuana and stimulant use in adulthood. Results emphasize the need to take seriously the elevated rates of substance documented among adolescents in affluent American school communities.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 30 , Issue 1 , February 2018 , pp. 315 - 335
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This paper is dedicated to the memory of Samuel H. Barkin, deeply cherished student and collaborator. We are deeply grateful to the young adults who generously gave of their time and perspectives over the many years of this study and for funding by the National Institutes of Health (R01DA014385, R13 MH082592). We are also thankful for the contributions of master's and doctoral students in Dr. Luthar's prior lab at Teachers College, Columbia University, and to Nina L. Kumar.

References

Abar, C. C., Jackson, K. M., & Wood, M. (2014). Reciprocal relations between perceived parental knowledge and adolescent substance use and delinquency: The moderating role of parent–teen relationship quality. Developmental Psychology, 50, 2176–2187. doi:10.1037/a0037463 Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM- IV (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Andrews, J. A., Tildesley, E., Hops, H., & Li, F. (2002). The influence of peers on young adult substance use. Health Psychology, 21, 349. doi:10.1037//0278-6133.21.4.349 Google Scholar
Arnett, J. J. (2005). The developmental context of substance use in emerging adulthood. Journal of Drug Issues, 35, 235–254. doi:10.1177/002204260503500202 Google Scholar
Arnett, J. J. (2007). Emerging adulthood: What is it, and what is it good for? Child Development Perspectives, 1, 68–73. doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2007.00016.x Google Scholar
Arria, A. M., Bugbee, B. A., Caldeira, K. M., & Vincent, K. B. (2014). Evidence and knowledge gaps for the association between energy drink use and high-risk behaviors among adolescents and young adults. Nutrition Reviews, 72, 87–97. doi:10.1111/nure.12129 Google Scholar
Bachman, J. G., Wadsworth, K. N., O'Malley, P. M., Johnston, L. D., & Schulenberg, J. E. (1997). Smoking, drinking, and drug use in young adulthood: The impacts of new freedoms and new responsibilities. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Botticello, A. L. (2009). School contextual influences on the risk for adolescent alcohol misuse. American Journal of Community Psychology, 43, 85–97. doi:10.1007/s10464-008-9226-4 Google Scholar
Boyle, J. R., & Boekeloo, B. O. (2006). Perceived parental approval of drinking and its impact on problem drinking behaviors among first-year college students. Journal of American College Health, 54, 238–244. doi:10.3200/JACH.54.4.238-244 Google Scholar
Bui, Q., & Dougherty, C. (2017). Good schools, affordable homes: Finding suburban sweet spots. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/03/30/upshot/good-schools-affordable-homes-suburban-sweet-spots.html?_ Google Scholar
Carrick, A. K. (2016). Drinking to blackout. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/19/opinion/drinking-to-blackout.html Google Scholar
Chase, S. A. (2008). Perfectly prep: Gender extremes at a New England prep school. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Chen, L. Y., Crum, R. M., Strain, E. C., Alexander, G. C., Kaufmann, C., & Mojtabai, R. (2016). Prescriptions, nonmedical use, and emergency department visits involving prescription stimulants. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 77, e297–e304. doi:10.4088/JCP.14m09291 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, P., & Jacobson, K. C. (2013). Longitudinal relationships between college education and patterns of heavy drinking: A comparison between Caucasians and African-Americans. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53, 356–362. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2013.04.003 Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (1984). The emergence of developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 1–7. doi:10.2307/1129830 Google Scholar
Cohen, D. A., & Rice, J. (1997). Parenting styles, adolescent substance use, and academic achievement. Journal of Drug Education, 27, 199–211.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coley, R. L., Sims, J., Dearing, E., & Spielvogel, B. (2017). Locating economic risks for adolescent well-being: Poverty and affluence in families, schools, and neighborhoods. Child Development. Advance online publication. doi:10.1111/cdev.12771 Google Scholar
Crosnoe, R. (2009). Low-income students and the socioeconomic composition of public high schools. American Sociological Review, 74, 709–730. doi:10.1177/000312240907400502 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dantzer, C., Wardle, J., Fuller, R., Pampalone, S. Z., & Steptoe, A. (2006). International study of heavy drinking: Attitudes and sociodemographic factors in university students. Journal of American College Health, 55, 83–90. doi:10.3200/JACH.55.2.83-90 Google Scholar
Deng, Y., Hillygus, D. S., Reiter, J. P., Si, Y., & Zheng, S. (2013). Handling attrition in longitudinal studies: The case for refreshment samples. Statistical Science, 28, 238–256.Google Scholar
Dreier, P. (2014). America's classist education system. The Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/peter-dreier/americas-rigged-education_b_5621332.html Google Scholar
Ellickson, P. L., Martino, S. C., & Collins, R. L. (2004). Marijuana use from adolescence to young adulthood: Multiple developmental trajectories and their associated outcomes. Health Psychology, 23, 299. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.23.3.299 Google Scholar
Ellickson, S. L., Tucker, J. S., Klein, D. J., & McGuigan, K. A. (2001). Prospective risk factors for alcohol misuse in late adolescence. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 62, 773–782. doi:10.15288/jsa.2001.62.773 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Enders, C. K. (2010). Applied missing data analysis. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Enders, C. K., & Bandalos, D. L. (2001). The relative performance of full information maximum likelihood estimation for missing data in structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling, 8, 430–457.Google Scholar
Fletcher, A. C., Steinberg, L., & Williams-Wheeler, M. (2004). Parental influences on adolescent problem behavior: Revisiting Stattin and Kerr. Child Development, 75, 781–796.Google Scholar
Gaither, J. R., Leventhal, J. M., Ryan, S. A., & Camenga, D. R. (2016). National trends in hospitalizations for opioid poisonings among children and adolescents, 1997 to 2012. JAMA Pediatrics, 170, 1195–1201. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.2154 Google Scholar
Gendaszek, A. E., & Low, K. G. (2002). Illicit use of psychostimulants among college students: A preliminary study. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 7, 283–287. doi:10.1080/13548500220139386 Google Scholar
Givens, M., Gennuso, K., Jovaag, A., & Van Dijk, J. W. (2017). 2017 County Health Rankings: Key findings report. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Population Health Institute. Retrieved from http://www.countyhealthrankings.org/reports/2017-county-health-rankings-key-findings-report Google Scholar
Glatz, T., Stattin, H., & Kerr, M. (2012). A test of cognitive dissonance theory to explain parents’ reactions to youths’ alcohol intoxication. Family Relations, 61, 629–641. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2012.00723.x Google Scholar
Grant, B. F., Stinson, F. S., & Harford, T. C. (2001). Age at onset of alcohol use and DSM-IV alcohol abuse and dependence: A 12-year follow-up. Journal of Substance Abuse, 13, 493–504. doi:10.1016/S0899-3289(01)00096-7 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffin, K. W., Samuolis, J., & Williams, C. (2011). Efficacy of a self-administered home-based parent intervention on parenting behaviors for preventing adolescent substance use. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20, 319–325. doi:10.1007/s10826-010-9395-2 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartman, J., Corbin, W., Luthar, S. S., Van Lenten, S., Dishion, T., Doane, L., & Ha, T. (2016, October). Parent–child relationship quality: A potential moderator in the link between parental containment and alcohol use before the transition to college. Paper presented at the 50th Annual Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies Meeting, New York, October 27–30Google Scholar
Hirshman, R. (2017, January/February). Kids caught in the opioid crisis. Yale Alumni Magazine, p. 30. Retrieved from https://yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4432-kids-caught-in-the-opioid-crisis Google Scholar
Hoffmann, J. P., & Bahr, S. J. (2014). Parenting style, religiosity, peer alcohol use, and adolescent heavy drinking. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 75, 222–227.Google Scholar
Humensky, J. L. (2010). Are adolescents with high socioeconomic status more likely to engage in alcohol and illicit drug use in early adulthood? Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 5, 19. doi:10.1186/1747-597X-5-19 Google Scholar
Hussey, K., & Schlossberg, T. (2015). 12 at Wesleyan University are hospitalized for drug overdoses. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/24/nyregion/12-at-wesleyan-university-hospitalized-for-drug-overdoses.html Google Scholar
Huston, A. C., McLoyd, V. C., & Coll, C. G. (1994). Children and poverty: Issues in contemporary research. Child Development, 65, 275–282. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00750.x Google Scholar
Jackson, K. M., Sher, K. J., Gotham, H. J., & Wood, P. K. (2001). Transitioning into and out of large-effect drinking in young adulthood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 378. doi:10.1037//0021-843X.110.3.378 Google Scholar
Jensen, M., Chassin, L., & Gonzales, N. (2017). Neighborhood moderation of sensation seeking effects on adolescent substance use initiation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s10964-017-0647-y Google Scholar
Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Monitoring the Future national results on adolescent drug use: 2012 overview, key findings on adolescent drug use. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research.Google Scholar
Johnston, L. D., O'Malley, P. M., Bachman, J. G., Schulenberg, J. E., & Miech, R. A. (2014). Monitoring the Future national survey results on drug use, 1975–2013: Vol. II. College students and adults ages 19–55. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research.Google Scholar
Kerr, M., Stattin, H., & Özdemir, M. (2012). Perceived parenting style and adolescent adjustment: Revisiting directions of effects and the role of parental knowledge. Developmental Psychology, 48, 1540–1553. doi:10.1037/a0027720.1540 Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Chiu, W. T., Demler, O., Heeringa, S., Hiripi, E., … Zheng, H. (2004). The US National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R): Design and field procedures. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 13, 69–92. doi:10.1002/mpr.167 Google Scholar
Koplewicz, H. S., Gurian, A., & Williams, K. (2009). The era of affluence and its discontents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 1053–1055. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e3181b8be5c Google Scholar
LaBrie, J. W., Hummer, J. F., & Pedersen, E. R. (2007). Reasons for drinking in the college student context: The differential role and risk of the social motivator. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68, 393. doi:10.15288/jsad.2007.68.393 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, C. T., McClernon, F. J., Kollins, S. H., Prybol, K., & Fuemmeler, B. F. (2013). Childhood economic strains in predicting substance use in emerging adulthood: Mediation effects of youth self-control and parenting practices. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 38, 1130–1143. doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jst056 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lovegrove, M. C., Weidle, N. J., & Budnitz, D. S. (2015). Trends in emergency department visits for unsupervised pediatric medication exposures, 2004–2013. Pediatrics, 136, e821–e829. doi:10.1542/peds.2015-2092 Google Scholar
Lund, T. J., Dearing, E., & Zachrisson, H. D. (2017). Is affluence a risk for adolescents in Norway? Journal of Research on Adolescence. Advance online publication. doi:10.1111/jora.12304 Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S., & Barkin, S. H. (2012). Are affluent youth truly “at risk”? Vulnerability and resilience across three diverse samples. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 429–449. doi:10.1017/S0954579412000089 Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S, Barkin, S. H., & Crossman, E. J. (2013). I can, therefore I must: Fragility in the upper-middle classes. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1529–1549. doi:10.1017/S0954579413000758 Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S., & D'Avanzo, K. (1999). Contextual factors in substance use: A study of suburban and inner-city adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 845–867. doi:10.1017/S0954579499002357 Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S., & Goldstein, A. S. (2008). Substance use and related behaviors among suburban late adolescents: The importance of perceived parent containment. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 591–614. doi:10.1017/S0954579408000291 Google Scholar
Lyman, E. L., & Luthar, S. S. (2014). Further evidence on the “costs of privilege”: Perfectionism in high-achieving youth at socioeconomic extremes. Psychology in the Schools, 51, 913–930.Google Scholar
MacKinnon, D. P. (2008). Introduction to statistical mediation analysis. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Maggs, J. L., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2004). Trajectories of alcohol use during the transition to adulthood. Alcohol Research and Health, 28, 195–201.Google Scholar
Marano, H. E. (2005). Rocking the cradle of class. Psychology Today, 38, 52–58.Google Scholar
Mason, W. A., & Spoth, R. L. (2011). Longitudinal associations of alcohol involvement with subjective well-being in adolescence and prediction to alcohol problems in early adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 1215–1224. doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9632-z Google Scholar
Messler, E. C., Quevillon, R. P., & Simons, J. S. (2014). The effect of perceived parental approval of drinking on alcohol use and problems. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 58, 44–59.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Taylor, A., Kokaua, J., Milne, B. J., Polanczyk, G., & Poulton, R. (2010). How common are common mental disorders? Evidence that lifetime prevalence rates are doubled by prospective versus retrospective ascertainment. Psychological Medicine, 40, 899–909. doi:10.1017/S0033291709991036 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, D. R., Burgard, D. A., Larson, R. G., & Ferm, M. (2014). Psychostimulant use among college students during periods of high and low stress: An interdisciplinary approach utilizing both self-report and unobtrusive chemical sample data. Addictive Behaviors, 39, 987–993. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.01.021 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moss, H. B., Chen, C. M., & Yi, H. Y. (2014). Early adolescent patterns of alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana polysubstance use and young adult substance use outcomes in a nationally representative sample. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 136, 51–62. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.12.011 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muthén, B., & Muthén, L. (2013). Mplus 7.1 [Computer software]. Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
National Comorbidity Study. (2005). Instruments. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Medical School. Retrieved from http://www.hcp.med.harvard.edu/ncs/instruments.php Google Scholar
National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2014). Costs of substance abuse. Retrieved from http://www.drugabuse.gov/related-topics/trends-statistics Google Scholar
Odgers, C. L., Donley, S., Caspi, A., Bates, C. J., & Moffitt, T. E. (2015). Living alongside more affluent neighbors predicts greater involvement in antisocial behavior among low-income boys. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 56, 1055–1064. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12380 Google Scholar
O'Hara, R. E., Armeli, S., & Tennen, H. (2015). College students’ drinking motives and social-contextual factors: Comparing associations across levels of analysis. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 29, 420. doi:10.1037/adb0000046 Google Scholar
Olino, T. M., Yu, L., Klein, D. N., Rohde, P., Seeley, J. R., Pilkonis, P. A., & Lewinsohn, P. M. (2012). Measuring depression using item response theory: An examination of three measures of depressive symptomatology. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 21, 76–85. doi:10.1002/mpr.1348 Google Scholar
Pardini, D. A. (2008). Novel insights into longstanding theories of bidirectional parent–child influences: Introduction to the special section. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 627–631. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9231-y CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patrick, M. E., Wightman, P., Schoeni, R. F., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Socioeconomic status and substance use among young adults: A comparison across constructs and drugs. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 73, 772–782. doi:10.15288/jsad.2012.73.772 Google Scholar
Pell Institute. (2015). Indicators of higher education equity in the United States. Retrieved from http://www.pellinstitute.org/downloads/publications-Indicators_of_Higher_Education_Equity_in_the_US_45_Year_Trend_Report.pdf Google Scholar
Racz, S. J., & McMahon, R. J. (2011). The relationship between parental knowledge and monitoring and child and adolescent conduct problems: A 10-year update. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 377–398. doi:10.1007/s10567-011-0099-y CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reboussin, B. A., Preisser, J. S., Song, E. Y., & Wolfson, M. (2010). Geographic clustering of underage drinking and the influence of community characteristics. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 106, 38–47. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01491.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reifman, A., & Watson, W. K. (2003). Binge drinking during the first semester of college: Continuation and desistance from high school patterns. Journal of American College Health, 52, 73–81. doi:10.1080/07448480309595727 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reyna, V. F., & Mills, B. A. (2014). Theoretically motivated interventions for reducing sexual risk taking in adolescence: A randomized controlled experiment applying fuzzy-trace theory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143, 1627–1648. doi:10.1037/a0036717 Google Scholar
Robins, L. N., Cottler, L. B., Compton, W. M., Bucholz, K., North, C. S., & Rourke, K. M. (2000). Diagnostic Interview Schedule for the DSM-IV (DIS-IV). St. Louis, MO: Washington University.Google Scholar
Rose, P., Smith, S. T., & Segrist, D. J. (2010). Too cheap to chug: Frugality as a buffer against college-student drinking. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 9, 228–238. doi:10.1002/cb.314 Google Scholar
Rothman, S. (2009). Estimating attrition bias in the Year 9 cohorts of the Longitudinal Surveys of Australian Youth (Technical Report No. 48). Melbourne: Australian Council for Educational Research.Google Scholar
Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147–177.Google Scholar
Schiffman, K. (2011). Study on suburban heroin use dispels myths about protective and risk factors. Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/10/20/suburban-heroin-use-study_n_1019629.html Google Scholar
Schulenberg, J. E., & Zarrett, N. R. (2006). Mental health during emerging adulthood: Continuity and discontinuity in courses, causes, and functions. In Arnett, J. J. & Tanner, J. L. (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century (pp. 135–172). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Song, E. Y., Reboussin, B. A., Foley, K. L., Kaltenbach, L. A., Wagoner, K. G., & Wolfson, M. (2009). Selected community characteristics and underage drinking. Substance Use & Misuse, 44, 179–194. doi:10.1080/10826080802347594 Google Scholar
Steinman, K. J. (2003). College students’ early cessation from episodic heavy drinking: Prevalence and correlates. Journal of American College Health, 51, 197–204. doi:10.1080/07448480309596351 Google Scholar
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2012). Results from the 2011 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of national findings. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services.Google Scholar
Takayanagi, Y., Spira, A. P., Roth, K. B., Gallo, J. J., Eaton, W. W., & Mojtabai, R. (2014). Accuracy of reports of lifetime mental and physical disorders: Results from the Baltimore Epidemiological Catchment Area study. JAMA Psychiatry, 71, 273–280. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.3579 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Trim, R. S., & Chassin, L. (2008). Neighborhood socioeconomic status effects on adolescent alcohol outcomes using growth models: Exploring the role of parental alcoholism. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 69, 639–648. doi:10.15288/jsad.2008.69.639 Google Scholar
Turrisi, R., Wiersma, K. A., & Hughes, K. K. (2000). Binge-drinking-related consequences in college students: Role of drinking beliefs and mother–teen communications. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 14, 342. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.14.4.342 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uestuen, B., & Kennedy, C. (2009). What is “functional impairment”? Disentangling disability from clinical significance. World Psychiatry, 8, 82–85. doi:10.1002/j.2051-5545.2009.tb00219.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
United States Bureau of the Census. (2015). Quick facts. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045215/3665431,0983570 Google Scholar
Visser, L., de Winter, A. F., Vollebergh, W. A., Verhulst, F. C., & Reijneveld, S. A. (2013). The impact of parenting styles on adolescent alcohol use: The TRAILS study. European Addiction Research, 19, 165–172.Google Scholar
Vrecko, S. (2015). Everyday drug diversions: A qualitative study of the illicit exchange and non-medical use of prescription stimulants on a university campus. Social Science & Medicine, 131, 297–304. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.10.016 Google Scholar
Wechsler, H., Lee, J. E., Kuo, M., Seibring, M., Nelson, T. F., & Lee, H. (2002). Trends in college binge drinking during a period of increased prevention efforts: Findings from 4 Harvard School of Public Health college alcohol study surveys: 1993–2001. Journal of American College Health, 50, 203–217. doi:10.1080/07448480209595713 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wechsler, H., & Nelson, T. F. (2008). What we have learned from the Harvard School of Public Health College Alcohol Study: Focusing attention on college student alcohol consumption and the environmental conditions that promote it. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 69, 481. doi:10.15288/jsad.2008.69.481 Google Scholar
White, B. P., Becker-Blease, K. A., & Grace-Bishop, K. (2006). Stimulant medication use, misuse, and abuse in an undergraduate and graduate student sample. Journal of American College Health, 54, 261–268. doi:10.3200/JACH.54.5.261-268 CrossRefGoogle Scholar