Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T07:57:53.184Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Attachment and selective attention: Disorganization and emotional Stroop reaction time

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  15 January 2009

Leslie Atkinson ,
Eman Leung ,
Susan Goldberg ,
Diane Benoit ,
Lori Poulton ,
Natalie Myhal ,
Kirsten Blokland  and
Sheila Kerr
Leslie Atkinson*
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Eman Leung
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Susan Goldberg
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Diane Benoit
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Lori Poulton
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Natalie Myhal
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Kirsten Blokland
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Sheila Kerr
Affiliation:
Technolog, Inc.
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Leslie Atkinson, Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, Ontario M5B 2K3, Canada; E-mail: atkinson@psych.ryerson.ca.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Although central to attachment theory, internal working models remain a useful heuristic in need of concretization. We compared the selective attention of organized and disorganized mothers using the emotional Stroop task. Both disorganized attachment and emotional Stroop response involve the coordination of strongly conflicting motivations under conditions of emotional arousal. Furthermore, much is known about the cognitive and neuromodulatory correlates of the Stroop that may inform attempts to substantiate the internal working model construct. We assessed 47 community mothers with the Adult Attachment Interview and the Working Model of the Child Interview in the third trimester of pregnancy. At 6 and 12 months postpartum, we assessed mothers with emotional Stroop tasks involving neutral, attachment, and emotion conditions. At 12 months, we observed their infants in the Strange Situation. Results showed that: disorganized attachment is related to relative Stroop reaction time, that is, unlike organized mothers, disorganized mothers respond to negative attachment/emotion stimuli more slowly than to neutral stimuli; relative speed of response is positively related to number of times the dyad was classified disorganized, and change in relative Stroop response time from 6 to 12 months is related to the match-mismatch status of mother and infant attachment classifications. We discuss implications in terms of automatic and controlled processing and, more specifically, cognitive threat tags, parallel distributed processing, and neuromodulation through norepenephrine and dopamine.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 21 , Issue 1 , January 2009 , pp. 99 - 126
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abraham, W. C., Delanoy, R. I., Dunn, A. J., & Zornetzer, S. F. (1979). Locus coeruleus stimulation decreases deoxyglucose uptake in ipsilateral cerebral cortex. Brain Research, 172, 387–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Hillside, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Amos, A. (2000). A computational model of information processing in the frontal cortex and basal ganglia. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 505–519.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnsten, A. F. T. (1998). Catecholamine modulation of prefrontal cortical cognitive function. Trends in Cognitive Science, 2, 436–447.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atkinson, L., Goldberg, S., Raval, V., Pederson, D., Benoit, D., Moran, G., et al. (2005). On the relation between maternal state of mind and sensitivity in the prediction of infant attachment security. Developmental Psychology, 41, 42–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atkinson, L., Niccols, A., Paglia, A., Coolbear, J., Parker, K. C. H., Poulton, L., et al. (2000). A meta-analysis of time between maternal sensitivity and attachment assessments: Implications for internal working models in infancy/toddlerhood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 17, 791–809.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkinson, L., Paglia, A., Coolbear, J., Niccols, A., Poulton, L., Leung, E., et al. (2000). L'evaluation de la sensibilite maternelle dans le contexte de la securite d'attachment: Une meta-analyse [Assessing maternal sensitivity in the context of attachment security: A meta-analysis]. In Tarabulsy, G. M., Larose, S., Pederson, D. R., & Moran, G. (Eds.), Attachement et développement: Le role des premieres relations dans le developpement humain [Attachment and development: The role of first relationships in human development] (pp. 27–56). Québec, Canada: Presses de l'Université du Québec.Google Scholar
Atkinson, L., Scott, B., Chisholm, V.C., Blackwell, J., Dickens, S.E., Tam, F., et al. (1995). Cognitive coping, affective distress, and maternal sensitivity: Mothers of children with Down syndrome. Developmental Psychology, 31, 668–679.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bar-Haim, Y., Lamy, D., Pergamim, L., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2007). Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 1–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bargh, J. A., & Chartrand, T. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54, 462–479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Garbin, M. G. (1988). Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review, 8, 77–100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Belsky, J. (1999). Modern evolutionary theory and patterns of attachment. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 141–161). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., & Cassidy, J. (1995). Attachment theory and evidence. In Rutter, M. & Hay, D. (Eds.), Development through life (pp. 373–402). London: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., Spritz, B., & Crnic, K. (1996). Infant attachment security and affective–cognitive information processing at age 3. Psychological Science, 7, 111–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. I. Attachment. Sydney: Pimlico.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. II. Separation, anxiety and anger. Sydney: Pimlico.Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Vol. III. Loss, sadness and depression. Sydney: Pimlico.Google Scholar
Bretherton, I. (1980). Young children in stressful situations: The supporting role of attachment figures and unfamiliar caregivers. In Coelho, G. V. & Ahmed, P. (Eds.), Uprooting and development (pp. 179–210). New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bretherton, I. (1985). Attachment theory: Retrospect and prospect. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(1–2, Serial No. 209), 3–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bretherton, I., & Munholland, K. A. (1999). Internal working models in attachment relationships. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment (pp. 89–111). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bronfman, E. T., Parsons, E., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2004). Atypical Maternal Behavior Instrument for Assessment and Classification (AMBIANCE): Manual for coding disrupted affective communication. Unpublished manuscript, Harvard Medical School.Google Scholar
Bruner, J. (1992). Another new look I. American Psychologist, 47, 766–779.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bush, L. K., Hess, U., & Wolford, G. (1993). Transformations for within-subject designs: A Monte Carlo investigation. Psychological Bulletin, 113, 566–579.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, E. A. (1998). A prospective longitudinal study of attachment disorganization/disorientation. Child Development, 69, 1107–1128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, E. A., & Sroufe, L. A. (1993). Reliability in attachment classification. SRCD Newsletter, 4.Google Scholar
Cassidy, J. (1994). Emotion regulation: Influences of attachment relationships. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2–3, Serial No. 240), 228–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Posner, M.I. (2005). Cognitive and affective neuroscience and developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 569–575.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clarke, A. S., Hedeker, D. R., Ebert, M. H., Schmidt, D. E., McKinney, W. T., & Kraemer, G. W. (1996). Rearing experience and biogenic amine activity in infant rhesus monkeys. Biological Psychiatry, 40, 338–352.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J. D., Dunbar, K., & McClelland, J. L. (1990). On the control of automatic processes: A parallel distributed processing account of the Stroop effect. Psychological Review, 97, 332–361.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J. D., & Servan-Schreiber, D. (1993). A theory of dopamine function and its role in cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 19, 85–104.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, N. L., & Read, S. J. (1994). Cognitive representations of attachment: The structure and function of working models. In Bartholomew, K. & Perlman, D. (Eds.), Advances in personal relationships (Vol. 5, pp. 53–90). London: Jessica Kingsley.Google Scholar
Compton, R. J., Banich, M. T., Mohanty, A., Milham, M. P., Herrington, J., Miller, G. A., et al. (2003). Paying attention to emotion: An fMRI investigation of cognitive and emotional Stroop tasks. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 3, 81–96.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cox, J. L., Holden, J. M., & Sagovsky, R. (1987). Detection of postnatal depression: Development of the 10-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. British Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 782–786.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craik, K. (1943). The nature of explanation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dawes, R. (1979). The robust beauty of improper linear models in decision making. American Psychologist, 34, 571–582.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Derogatis, L. R. (1994). Symptom Checklist-90-R: Administration, scoring, and procedures manual. Minneapolis, MN: NCS Pearson.Google Scholar
Dozier, M., & Kobak, R. R. (1992). Psychophysiology in attachment interviews: Converging evidence for deactivating strategies. Child Development, 63, 1473–1480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Egner, T., & Hirsch, J. (2005). Where memory meets attention: Neural substrates of negative priming. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17, 1774–1784.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erdelyi, M. H. (1974). A new look at the new look: Perceptual defense and vigilance. Psychological Review, 81, 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fan, J., Fossella, J., Sommer, T., Wu, Y., & Posner, M. I. (2003). Mapping the genetic variation of executive attention onto brain activity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100, 7406–7411.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fearon, R. M. P., & Belsky, J. (2004). Attachment and attention: Protection in relation to gender and cumulative social–contextual adversity. Child Development, 75, 1677–1693.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feeney, J., & Noller, P. (1996). Adult attachment. London: Sage.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foa, E. B., Feske, U., Murdock, T. B., Kozak, M. J., & McCarthy, P. R. (1991). Processing of threat-related information in rape victims. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 156–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
George, C., Kaplan, N., & Main, M. (1996) Adult Attachment Interview. Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Berkeley, Department of Psychology.Google Scholar
Gervai, J., Nemoda, Z., Lakatos, K., Ronai, Z., Toth, I., Ney, K., et al. (2005). Transmission disequilibrium tests confirm the link between DRD4 gene polymorphism and infant attachment. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 132, 126–130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldapple, K., Segal, Z., Garson, C., Lau, M., Bieling, P., Kennedy, S. et al. (2004). Modulation of cortical–limbic pathways in major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 34–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, S. (2000). Attachment and development. London: Arnold.Google Scholar
Goldberg, S., Benoit, D., Blokland, K., & Madigan, S. (2003). Atypical maternal behavior, maternal representations, and infant disorganized attachment. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 239–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwald, A. G. (1992). New look 3: Unconscious cognition reclaimed. American Psychologist, 47, 766–779.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gonzalez, A., Atkinson, L., & Fleming, A. (in press). Attachment and the comparative psychobiology of mothering. In de Haan, M. & Gunnar, M. (Eds.), Handbook of developmental social neuroscience. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Grienberger, J., Kelley, K., & Slade, A. (2005). Maternal reflective functioning, mother–infant affective communication and infant attachment: Exploring the link between mental states and observed caregiving behavior in the transmission of attachment. Attachment and Human Development, 7, 299–311.Google Scholar
Hesse, E., & Main, M. (2006). Frightened, threatening, and dissociative paretnal behavior in low-risk samples: Description, discussion, and interpretations. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 309–343.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Higley, J. D., Suomi, S. J., & Linnoila, M. (1991). CSF monoamine metabolite concentrations vary according to age, rearing, and sex, and are influenced by the stressor of social separation in rhesus monkeys. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 103, 551–556.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinde, R. A. (1988). Continuities and discontinuities: Conceptual issues and methodological considerations. In Rutter, M. (Ed.), Studies of psychosocial risk: The power of longitudinal data (pp. 367–380). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Holender, D. (1986). Semantic activation without conscious identification in dichotic listening, parafoveal vision, and visual masking: A survey and appraisal. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 9, 1–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horn, G. (1965). Physiological and psychological aspects of selective perception. In Lehrman, D., Hinde, R. A., & Shaw, E. (Eds.), Advances in the study of animal behaviour (Vol. 1). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Horn, G. (1976). Physiological studies of attention and arousal. In Desiraju, T. (Ed.), Mechanisms in transmission of signals for conscious behaviour. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Kahneman, D., & Treisman, A. (1984). Changing views of attention and automaticity. In Parasuraman, R. & Davies, D. R. (Eds.), Varieties of attention (pp. 29–61). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kirsh, S. J., & Cassidy, J. (1997). Preschoolers' attention to and memory for attachment-relevant information. Child Development, 68, 1143–1153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kobak, R. R., Cole, H. E., Ferenz-Gillies, R., & Fleming, W. S. (1993). Attachment and emotion regulation during mother–teen problem solving: A control theory analysis. Child Development, 64, 231–245.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kraemer, G. W. (1992). A psychobiological theory of attachment. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 15, 493–541.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kraemer, G. W., & Clarke, A. S. (1990). The behavioral neurobiology of self-injurious behavior in rhesus monkeys. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry, 14, S141–S168CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lakatos, K., Nemoda, Z., Toth, I., Rosen, K. S., Ney, K., Sasvari-Szekely, M., et al. (2002). Further evidence for the role of the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) gene in attachment disorganization: Interaction of the exon III 48-bp repeat and the -521 C/T promoter polymorphisms. Molecular Psychiatry, 7, 27–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lakatos, K., Toth, I., Nemoda, Z., Ney, K., Sasvari-Szekely, M., & Gervai, J. (2000). Dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) gene polymorphism is associated with attachment disorganization in infants. Molecular Psychiatry, 5, 633–637.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liotti, G. (1992). Disorganized/disoriented attachment in the etiology of the dissociative disorders. Dissociation: Progress in the Dissociative Disorders, 5, 196–204.Google Scholar
Liotti, G. (1999). Disorganization of attachment as a model for understanding dissociative psychopathology. In Solomon, J. & George, C. (Eds.), Attachment disorganization (pp. 291–317). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Lynch, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1998). Trauma, mental representation, and the organization of memory for mother-referent material. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 739–759.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyons-Ruth, K., & Jacobvitz, D. (1999). Attachment disorganization: Unresolved loss, relational violence, and lapses in behavioral and attentional strategies. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 520–554). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., Melnick, S., Bronfman, E., Sherry, S., & Llanas, L. (2004). Hostile–helpless relational models and disorganized attachment patterns between parents and their young children: Review of research and implications for clinical work. In Atkinson, L. & Goldberg, S. (Eds.), Attachment issues in psychopathology and intervention (pp. 65–94). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
MacLeod, C. M. (1991). Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 163–203.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacLeod, C. M., & MacDonald, P. A. (2000). Interdimensional interference in the Stroop effect: Uncovering the cognitive and neural anatomy of attention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4, 383–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maier, M., Bernier, A., Atkinson, L., & Corcoran, D. (in press). Investigating associative structures. In Waters, E. (Ed.). Measuring attachment: Psychometrics of behavior, mental representations, and biological processes. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Maier, M. A., Bernier, A., Pekrun, R., Zimmermann, P., Strasser, K., & Grossmann, K. E. (2005). Attachment state of mind and perceptual processing of emotional stimuli. Attachment and Human Development, 7, 67–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Main, M. (1995). Attachment: Overview, with implications for clinical work. In Goldberg, S., Muir, R., & Kerr, J. (Eds.), Attachment theory: Social developmental and clinical perspectives (pp. 407–474). Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.Google Scholar
Main, M. (1999). Epilogue. Attachment theory: Eighteen points with suggestions for future studies. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical implications. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Main, M., & Goldwyn, R. (1994). Adult Attachment Scoring and Classification System. Unpublished manuscript. University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Main, M., Kaplan, N., & Cassidy, J. (1985). Security in infancy, childhood, and adulthood: A move to the level of representation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50(1–2, Serial No. 209), 66–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1986). Discovery of a new, insecure-disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern. In Brazelton, T. B. & Yogman, M. (Eds.), Affective development in infancy (pp. 95–124). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Google Scholar
Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1990). Procedures for identifying infants as disorganized/disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation. In Greenberg, M. T., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation series on mental health and development (pp. 121–160). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
McBride, C., & Atkinson, L. (in press). Attachment and CBT. In Obegi, J. & Berant, E. (Eds.), Clinical applications of adult attachment. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
McBride, C., Atkinson, L., Quilty, L., & Bagby, R. M. (2007). Adult attachment security and treatment response following IPT and CBT treatment of major depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 1041–1054.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oades, R. D. (1985). The role of noradrenaline in tuning and dopamine in switching between signals in the CNS. Neuroscience and Biobehavioural Reviews, 9, 261–282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ogawa, J. R., Sroufe, L. A., Weinfield, N. S., Carlson, E. A., & Egeland, B. (1997). Development and the fragmented self: Longitudinal study of dissociative symptomatology in a nonclinical sample. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 855–879.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2000). Developing mechanisms of self-regulation. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 427–441.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2007). Educating the human brain. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raval, V., Goldberg, S., Atkinson, L., Benoit, D., Myhal, N., Poulton, L., et al. (2001). Maternal attachment, maternal responsiveness and infant attachment. Infant Behavior & Development, 24, 281–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robbins, T. W. (2000). Animal models of set-formation and set-shifting deficits in schizophrenia. In Myslobodsky, M. S. & Weiner, I. (Eds.), Contemporary issues in modeling psychopathology: Neurobiological foundation of aberrant behaviors (pp. 247–258). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robbins, T. W. (2005). Chemistry of the mind: Neurochemical modulation of prefrontal cortical function. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 493, 140–146.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robertson, J., & Robertson, J. (1959). A two-year-old goes to the hospital [Video cassette]. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University.Google Scholar
Robertson, J., & Robertson, J. (1969/1990). John: Aged 17 months in a residential nursery for 9 days [Video cassette]. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University.Google Scholar
Schore, J. R. (2003). The development of attachment and affect regulation in infancy and childhood with possible clues to psychological gender. In Sanville, J. B. & Ruderman, E. B. (Eds.), Therapies with women in transition: Toward relational perspectives with today's women (pp. 77–89). Madison, CT: International Universities Press, Inc.Google Scholar
Stams, G.-J. J. M., Juffer, F., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2002). Maternal sensitivity, infant attachment, and temperament in early childhood prodict adjustment in middle childhood: The case of adopted children and their biologically unrelated parents. Developmental Psychology, 38, 806–821.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stroop, J. R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18, 643–662.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J. (2006). DRD47-repeat polymorphism moderates the association between maternal unresolved loss or trauma and infant disorganization. Attachment and Human Development, 8, 291–307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whalen, P. J., Bush, G., McNally, R. J., Wilhelm, S., McInerney, S. C., Jenike, M. A., et al. (1998). The emotional counting Stroop paradigm: A functional magnetic resonance imaging probe of the anterior cingulate affective division. Biological Psychiatry, 44, 1219–1228.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, J. M., Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (1996). The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 3–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, M. D. (1987). MRC Psycholinguistic Database: Machine Usable Dictionary. Version 2.00. Retrieved May 18, 2006, from http://www.psy.uwa.edu.au/mrcdatabase/mrc2.htmlGoogle Scholar
Zeanah, C. H., Benoit, D., Hirshberg, L., Barton, M. L., & Regan, C. (1994). Mothers' representations of their infants are concordant with infant attachment classifications. Developmental Issues in Psychiatry and Psychology, 1, 9–18.Google Scholar
Zeijlmans van Emmichoven, I. A., van IJzendoorn, M. H., de Ruiter, C., & Brosschot, J. F. (2003). Selective processing of threatening information: Effects of attachment representation and anxiety disorder on attachment and memory. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 219–237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed