Hostname: page-component-7b9c58cd5d-hpxsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-03-15T14:33:42.056Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The emerging sex difference in adolescent depression: Interacting contributions of puberty and peer stress

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 April 2009

Colleen S. Conley  and
Karen D. Rudolph
Colleen S. Conley*
Affiliation:
Loyola University Chicago
Karen D. Rudolph
Affiliation:
University of Illinois, Urbana–Champaign
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Colleen S. Conley, Department of Psychology, Loyola University Chicago, 6525 N. Sheridan Road, Chicago, IL 60626; E-mail: cconley@luc.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This research investigated the developmental stages (pubertal status) and contexts (early or late timing relative to peers, and a context of stressful versus supportive peer relationships) in which the sex difference in depression unfolds. A sample of 158 youth (ages 9.6–14.8) and their caregivers provided information at two waves, 1 year apart, on puberty, peer stress, and depression. Pubertal status and timing (actual and perceived) interacted with sex to predict depression. Sex differences in depression were evident at particular levels of pubertal status and timing, both actual and perceived. Depression was associated with more mature pubertal status and early timing (both actual and perceived) in girls, but with less mature pubertal status and late timing (actual and perceived) in boys. These patterns held concurrently, and often over time, particularly in a context of stressful peer relationships (peer stress moderated sex-differentiated associations between puberty and depression). Of note, there were no significant sex differences in depression at any particular age. Thus, this research highlights important distinctions among the contributions of age, pubertal status, pubertal timing, and perceived timing to the sex difference in adolescent depression. More broadly, these findings contribute to our growing understanding of the interactions among physical, social, and psychological processes involved in the sex difference in adolescent depression.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 21 , Issue 2 , May 2009 , pp. 593 - 620
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Alsaker, F. D. (1992). Pubertal timing, overweight, and psychological adjustment. Journal of Early Adolescence, 12, 396–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alsaker, F. D. (1995). Timing of puberty and reactions to pubertal changes. In Rutter, M. (Ed.), Psychosocial disturbances in young people: Challenges for prevention (pp. 37–82). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. C., Williams, S., McGee, R., & Silva, P. (1987). DSM-III disorders in preadolescent children: Prevalence in a large sample from the general population. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 69–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angold, A., Costello, E. J., Erkanli, A., & Worthman, C. M. (1999). Pubertal changes in hormone levels and depression in girls. Psychological Medicine, 29, 1043–1053.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angold, A., Costello, E. J., & Worthman, C. M. (1998). Puberty and depression: The roles of age, pubertal status and pubertal timing. Psychological Medicine, 28, 51–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Angold, A., & Erkanli, A. (1996). Disappearing depression in a population sample of boys. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 4, 95–104.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angold, A., & Rutter, M. (1992). Effects of age and pubertal status on depression in a large clinical sample. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 5–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Angold, A., Worthman, C., & Costello, E. J. (2003). Puberty and depression. In Hayward, C. (Ed.), Gender differences at puberty (pp. 137–164). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Benjet, C., & Hernández-Guzmán, L. (2002). A short-term longitudinal study of pubertal change, gender, and psychological well-being of Mexican early adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31, 429–442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berndt, T. J. (1982). The features and effects of friendship in early adolescence. Child Development, 53, 1447–1460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brooks-Gunn, J. (1987). Pubertal processes and girls' psychological adaptation. In Lerner, R. M. & Foch, T. T. (Eds.), Biological–psychosocial interactions in early adolescence (pp. 123–153). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Brooks-Gunn, J., & Warren, M. P. (1985). Measuring physical status and timing in early adolescence: A developmental perspective. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 14, 163–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooks-Gunn, J., & Warren, M. P. (1989). Biological and social contributions to negative affect in young adolescent girls. Child Development, 60, 40–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooks-Gunn, J., Warren, M. P., Rosso, J., & Gargiulo, J. (1987). Validity of self-report measures of girls' pubertal status. Child Development, 58, 829–841.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, B. B. (1990). Peer groups and peer cultures. In Feldman, S. S. & Elliott, G. R. (Eds.), At the threshold: The developing adolescent (pp. 171–196). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (1991). Individual differences are accentuated during periods of social change: The sample case of girls at puberty. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 157–168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.). (2006). Developmental psychopathology (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2002). A developmental psychopathology perspective on adolescence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 6–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (1994). A developmental psychopathology perspective on depression in children and adolescents. In Reynolds, W. M. & Johnston, H. F. (Eds.), Handbook of depression in children and adolescents (pp. 123–141). New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Compas, B. E. (1987). Stress and life events during childhood and adolescence. Clinical Psychology Review, 7, 275–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Compas, B. E., Hinden, B. R., & Gerhardt, C. A. (1995). Adolescent development: Pathways and processes of risk and resilience. Annual Review of Psychology, 46, 265–293.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crockett, L. J., & Petersen, A. C. (1987). Pubertal status and psychosocial development: Findings from the early adolescence study. In Lerner, R. M. & Foch, T. T. (Eds.), Biological–psychosocial interactions in early adolescence (pp. 173–188). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Larson, R. (1984). Being adolescent. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Davila, J., Hammen, C., Burge, D., Paley, B., & Daley, S. E. (1995). Poor interpersonal problem solving as a mechanism of stress generation in depression among adolescent women. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 592–600.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dorn, L. D., Susman, E. J., Nottelmann, E. D., Inoff-Germain, G., & Chrousos, G. P. (1990). Perceptions of puberty: Adolescent, parent, and health care personnel. Developmental Psychology, 26, 322–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dorn, L. D., Susman, E. J., & Ponirakis, A. (2003). Pubertal timing and adolescent adjustment and behavior: Conclusions vary by rater. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 157–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dubas, J. S., Graber, J. A., & Petersen, A. C. (1991). A longitudinal investigation of adolescents' changing perceptions of pubertal timing. Developmental Psychology, 27, 580–586.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duke, P. M., Litt, I. F., & Gross, R. T. (1980). Adolescents' self-assessment of sexual maturation. Pediatrics, 66, 918.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1985). Children's perceptions of the personal relationships in their social networks. Developmental Psychology, 21, 1016–1024.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Furman, W., & Buhrmester, D. (1992). Age and sex differences in perceptions of networks of personal relationships. Child Development, 63, 103–115.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gargiulo, J., Attie, I., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Warren, M. P. (1987). Girls' dating behavior as a function of social context and maturation. Developmental Psychology, 23, 730–737.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ge, X., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (1996). Coming of age too early: Pubertal influences on girls' vulnerability to psychological distress. Child Development, 67, 3386–3400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ge, X., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (2001a). Pubertal transition, stressful life events, and the emergence of gender differences in adolescent depressive symptoms. Developmental Psychology, 37, 404–417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ge, X., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (2001b). The relation between puberty and psychological distress in adolescent boys. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 11, 49–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ge, X., Elder, G. H., Regnerus, M., & Cox, C. (2001). Pubertal transitions, perception of being overweight, and adolescents' psychological maladjustment: Gender and ethnic differences. Social Psychology Quarterly, 64, 363–375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ge, X., Kim, I. J., Brody, G. H., Conger, R. D., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., et al. (2003). It's about timing and change: Pubertal transition effects on symptoms of major depression among African American youths. Developmental Psychology, 39, 430–439.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ge, X., Lorenz, F. O., Conger, R. D., Elder, G. H., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Trajectories of stressful life events and depressive symptoms during adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 30, 467–483.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodyer, I., Wright, C., & Altham, P. (1990). The friendships and recent life events of anxious and depressed school-age children. British Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 689–698.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gore, S., Aseltine, R. H., & Colten, M. E. (1993). Gender, social–relational involvement, and depression. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 3, 101–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graber, J. A. (2003). Puberty in context. In Hayward, C. (Ed.), Gender differences at puberty (pp. 307–325). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graber, J. A., Lewinsohn, P. M., Seeley, J. R., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1997). Is psychopathology associated with the timing of pubertal development? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1768–1776.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graber, J. A., Petersen, A. C., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1996). Pubertal processes: Methods, measures, and models. In Graber, J. A. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (Eds.), Transitions through adolescence: Interpersonal domains and context (pp. 23–53). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Graber, J. A., Seeley, J. R., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Lewinsohn, P. M. (2004). Is pubertal timing associated with psychopathology in young adulthood? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 718–726.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammen, C., & Rudolph, K. D. (2003). Childhood mood disorders. In Mash, E. J. & Barkley, R. A. (Eds.), Child psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 233–278). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hammen, C., Shih, J., Altman, T., & Brennan, P. A. (2003). Interpersonal impairment and the prediction of depressive symptoms in adolescent children of depressed and nondepressed mothers. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 571–577.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammen, C., Shih, J. H., & Brennan, P. A. (2004). Intergenerational transmission of depression: Test of an interpersonal stress model in a community sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 511–522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hammen, C. L., Burge, D., Daley, S. E., Davila, J., Paley, B., & Rudolph, K. D. (1995). Interpersonal attachment cognitions and prediction of symptomatic responses to interpersonal stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 436–443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hankin, B. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (2001). Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive vulnerability-transactional stress theory. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 773–796.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., McGee, R., & Angell, K. E. (1998). Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 128–140.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hankin, B. L., Mermelstein, R., & Roesch, L. (2007). Sex differences in adolescent depression: Stress exposure and reactivity models in interpersonal and achievement contextual domains. Child Development, 78, 279–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayward, C. (2003a). Methodological concerns in puberty-related research. In Hayward, C. (Ed.), Gender differences at puberty (pp. 1–14). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayward, C. (Ed.). (2003b). Gender differences at puberty. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayward, C., Gotlib, I. J., Schraedley, P. K., & Litt, I. F. (1999). Ethnic differences in the association between pubertal status and symptoms of depression in adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 25, 143–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayward, C., Killen, J. D., Wilson, D. M., Hammer, L. D., Litt, I. F., Kraemer, H. C., et al. (1997). Psychiatric risk associated with early puberty in adolescent girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 255–262.Google ScholarPubMed
Hayward, C., & Sanborn, K. (2002). Puberty and the emergence of gender differences in psychopathology. Journal of Adolescent Health, 30, 49–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huddleston, J., & Ge, X. (2003). Boys at puberty: Psychosocial implications. In Hayward, C. (Ed.), Gender differences at puberty (pp. 113–134). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaltiala-Heino, R., Kosunen, E., & Rimpela, M. (2003). Pubertal timing, sexual behaviour and self-reported depression in middle adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 26, 531–545.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., & Merikangas, K. R. (2001). Mood disorders in children and adolescents: An epidemiologic perspective. Biological Psychiatry, 49, 1002–1014.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein, D. N., Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., Seeley, J. R., & Olino, T. M. (2005). Psychopathology in the adolescent and young adult offspring of a community sample of mothers and fathers with major depression. Psychological Medicine, 35, 353–365.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klein, D. N., Ouimette, P. C., Kelly, H. S., Ferro, T., & Riso, L. P. (1994). Test–retest reliability of team consensus best-estimate diagnoses of Axis I and II disorders in a family study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 1043–1047.Google Scholar
Kovacs, M. (1982). The Children's Depression Inventory. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.Google Scholar
Krackow, E., & Rudolph, K. D. (2008). Life stress and the accuracy of cognitive appraisals in depressed youth. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37, 376–385.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
La Greca, A. M., & Harrison, H. M. (2005). Adolescent peer relations, friendships, and romantic relationships: Do they predict social anxiety and depression? Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 34, 49–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leadbeater, B. J., Blatt, S. J., & Quinlan, D. M. (1995). Gender-linked vulnerabilities to depressive symptoms, stress, and problem behaviors in adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 5, 1–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magnusson, D. (1988). Individual development from an interactional perspective: A longitudinal study. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Marshall, W. A., & Tanner, J. M. (1970). Variations in the pattern of pubertal changes in boys. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 45, 12–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGee, R., Feehan, M., Williams, S., Partridge, F., Silva, P. A., & Kelly, J. (1990). DSM-III disorders in a large sample of adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 611–619.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Michael, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2003). When coming of age means coming undone: Links between puberty and psychosocial adjustment among European American and African American girls. In Hayward, C. (Ed.), Gender differences at puberty (pp. 277–303). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Montemayor, R., & Flannery, D. J. (1990). Making the transition from childhood to early adolescence. In Montemayor, R., Adams, G. R., & Gullotta, T. P. (Eds.), From childhood to adolescence: A transitional period? (pp. 291–301). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Morris, N. M., & Udry, J. R. (1980). Validation of a self-administered instrument to assess stage of adolescent development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 9, 271–280.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oldenburg, C. M., & Kerns, K. A. (1997). Associations between peer relationships and depressive symptoms: Testing moderator effects of gender and age. Journal of Early Adolescence, 17, 319–337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orvaschel, H. (1995). Schedule of Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children—Epidemiologic Version-5. Ft. Lauderdale, FL: Nova Southeastern University.Google Scholar
Paikoff, R. L., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Warren, M. P. (1991). Effects of girls' hormonal status on depressive and aggressive symptoms over the course of one year. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 191–215.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patton, G. C., Hibbert, M. E., Carlin, J., Shao, Q., Rosier, M., Caust, J., et al. (1996). Menarche and the onset of depression and anxiety in Victoria, Australia. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 50, 661–666.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pedhazur, E. J. (1997). Multiple regression in behavioral research (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.Google Scholar
Peskin, J. (1973). Influence of the developmental schedule of puberty on learning and ego functioning. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 2, 273–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petersen, A. C. (1980). Biopsychosocial processes in the development of sex-related differences. In Parsons, J. E. (Ed.), The psychobiology of sex differences and sex roles (pp. 31–55). New York: McGraw–Hill.Google Scholar
Petersen, A. C. (1983). Menarche: Meaning of measures and measuring meaning. In Golub, S. (Ed.), Menarche: The transition from girl to woman (pp. 63–76). Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Petersen, A. C., & Crockett, L. (1985). Pubertal timing and grade effects on adjustment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 14, 191–206.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Petersen, A. C., Crockett, L., Richards, M., & Boxer, A. (1988). A self-report measure of pubertal status: Reliability, validity, and initial norms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 1988, 117–133.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petersen, A. C., & Hamburg, B. A. (1986). Adolescence: A developmental approach to problems in psychopathology. Behavior Therapy, 17, 480–499.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petersen, A. C., & Taylor, B. (1980). The biological approach to adolescence: Biological change and psychological adaptation. In Adelson, J. (Ed.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (pp. 117–155). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Puig-Antich, J., Kaufman, J., Ryan, N. D., Williamson, D. E., Dahl, R. E., Lukens, E., et al. (1993). The psychological functioning and family environment of depressed adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 244–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 98–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rubin, C., Rubenstein, J. L., Stechler, G., Heeren, T., Halton, A., Housman, D., et al. (1992). Depressive affect in “normal” adolescents: Relationship to life stress, family, and friends. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 62, 430–441.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ruble, D. N., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1982). The experience of menarche. Child Development, 53, 1557–1566.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudolph, K. D. (2002). Gender differences in emotional responses to interpersonal stress during adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 30, 3–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudolph, K. D. (2008). Developmental influences on interpersonal stress generation in depressed youth. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 673–679.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudolph, K. D., & Flynn, M. (2007). Childhood adversity and youth depression: Influence of gender and pubertal status. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 497– 521.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudolph, K. D., Flynn, M., Abaied, J. L., Groot, A., & Thompson, R. (in press). Why is past depression the best predictor of future depression? Stress generation as a mechanism of depression continuity in girls. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology.Google Scholar
Rudolph, K. D., & Hammen, C. (1999). Age and gender as determinants of stress exposure, generation, and reactions in youngsters: A transactional perspective. Child Development, 70, 660–677.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudolph, K. D., Hammen, C., Burge, D., Lindberg, N., Herzberg, D., & Daley, S. (2000). Toward an interpersonal life-stress model of depression: The developmental context of stress generation. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 215–234.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rudolph, K. D., Hammen, C., & Daley, S. E. (2006). Mood disorders. In Wolfe, D. A. & Mash, E. J. (Eds.), Behavioral and emotional disorders in adolescents: Nature, assessment, and treatment (pp. 300–342). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Sameroff, A. J. (1987). The social context of development. In Eisenberg, N. (Ed.), Contemporary topics in developmental psychology (pp. 273–291). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Savin-Williams, R. C., & Berndt, T. J. (1990). Friendship and peer relations. In Feldman, S. S. & Elliott, G. R. (Eds.), At the threshold: The developing adolescent (pp. 277–307). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Schlossberger, N. M., Turner, R. A., & Irwin, C. E. (1992). Validity of self-report of pubertal maturation in early adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 13, 109–113.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schraedley, P. K., Gotlib, I. H., & Hayward, C. (1999). Gender differences in correlates of depressive symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 25, 98–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Siegel, J. M., Aneshensel, C. S., Taub, B., Cantwell, D. P., & Driscoll, A. K. (1998). Adolescent depressed mood in a multiethnic sample. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 27, 413–427.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Siegel, J. M., Yancey, A. K., Aneshensel, C. S., & Schuler, R. (1999). Body image, perceived pubertal timing, and adolescent mental health. Journal of Adolescent Health, 25, 155–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Silbereisen, R. K., & Kracke, B. (1997). Self-reported maturational timing and adaptation in adolescence. In Schulenberg, J., Maggs, J. L., & Hurrelman, K. (Eds.), Health risks and developmental transitions during adolescence (pp. 85–109). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Silberg, J., Pickles, A., Rutter, M., Hewitt, J., Simonoff, E., Maes, H., et al. (1999). The influence of genetic factors and life stress on depression among adolescent girls. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 225–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simmons, R. G., & Blyth, D. A. (1987). Moving into adolescence: The impact of pubertal change and school context. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Stattin, H., & Magnusson, D. (1990). Pubertal maturation in female development. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Susman, E. J., Dorn, L. D., & Chrousos, G. P. (1991). Negative affect and hormone levels in young adolescents: Concurrent and predictive perspectives. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 167–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Susman, E. J., Nottelmann, E. D., Inoff-Germain, G. E., Dorn, L. D., Cutler, G. B., Loriaux, D. L., et al. (1985). The relation of relative hormonal levels and physical development and social-emotional behavior in young adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 14, 245–264.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Susman, E. J., & Rogol, A. (2004). Puberty and psychological development. In Lerner, R. M. & Steinberg, L. (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (2nd ed., pp. 15–44). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tanner, J. M. (1955). Growth at adolescence. Springfield, IL: Thomas.Google Scholar
Tanner, J. M. (1969). Growth and endocrinology of the adolescent. In Gardner, L. I. (Ed.), Endocrine and genetic diseases of childhood (pp. 19–60). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.Google Scholar
Tobin-Richards, M. H., Boxer, A. M., & Petersen, A. C. (1983). The psychological significance of pubertal change: Sex differences in perceptions of self during early adolescence. In Brooks-Gunn, J. & Petersen, A. C. (Eds.), Girls at puberty: Biological and psychosocial perspectives (pp. 127–154). New York: Plenum Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Twenge, J. M., & Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2002). Age, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and birth cohort difference on the children's depression inventory: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 578–588.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
US Census Bureau. (2000). Population by race alone, race in combination only, race alone or in combination, and Hispanic or Latino origin, for the United States: 2000. Retrieved October 5, 2006, from http://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/phc-t1/tab03.pdfGoogle Scholar
Wagner, B. M., & Compas, B. E. (1990). Gender, instrumentality, and expressivity: Moderators of the relation between stress and psychological symptoms during adolescence. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 383–406.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weichold, K., Silbereisen, R. K., & Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2003). Short-term and long-term consequences of early versus late physical maturation in adolescents. In Hayward, C. (Ed.), Gender differences at puberty (pp. 241–276). New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weissman, M. M., Gammon, G. D., John, K., Merikangas, K. R., Warner, V., Prusoff, B. A., et al. (1987). Children of depressed parents: Increased psychopathology of early onset of major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 847–853.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wichstrom, L. (1999). The emergence of gender difference in depressed mood during adolescence: The role of intensified gender socialization. Developmental Psychology, 35, 232–245.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zuckerman, M. (1999). Vulnerability to psychopathology: A biosocial model. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar