Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T07:46:46.855Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Executive functioning in children with autism and Tourette syndrome

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 May 2005

SYLVIE VERTÉ ,
HILDE M. GEURTS ,
HERBERT ROEYERS ,
JAAP OOSTERLAAN  and
JOSEPH A. SERGEANT
SYLVIE VERTÉ
Affiliation:
Ghent University, Belgium
HILDE M. GEURTS
Affiliation:
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam University of Amsterdam
HERBERT ROEYERS
Affiliation:
Ghent University, Belgium
JAAP OOSTERLAAN
Affiliation:
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
JOSEPH A. SERGEANT
Affiliation:
Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The main aims of this study were to investigate if children with high-functioning autism (HFA) and children with Tourette syndrome (TS) can be differentiated in their executive functioning (EF) profile compared to normal controls (NCs) and compared to each other and to investigate whether children with HFA or children with TS and a comorbid group of children with both disorders are distinct conditions in terms of EF. Four groups of children participated in this study: HFA, TS, comorbid HFA + TS, and a NC group. All children were in the age range of 6 to 13 years. The groups were compared on five major domains of EF: inhibition, visual working memory, planning, cognitive flexibility, and verbal fluency. Children with HFA scored lower than NC children on all the EFs measured. Children with TS and NC children showed the same EF profile. The HFA group scored lower than the TS group for inhibition of a prepotent response and cognitive flexibility. Children with HFA performed poorer than children with comorbid HFA + TS on all functions, with the exception of inhibiting an ongoing response, interference control, and verbal fluency. Children with TS and children with comorbid HFA + TS could not be differentiated from one another in terms of EF. This study indicates that EF deficits are highly characteristic of children with HFA in comparison to children with TS and NC. The results suggest that for the comparison between HFA and TS groups, it is important to take into account comorbidity. A reevaluation of the EF hypothesis in children with TS is suggested.We thank the children and parents without whose participation this research would not have been possible.

Type
Research Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 17 , Issue 2 , June 2005 , pp. 415 - 445
Copyright
© 2005 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author.
Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology 8, 71–82.Google Scholar
Anderson, P., Anderson, V., & Lajoie, G. (1996). The Tower of London test: Validation and standardization for pediatric populations. Clinical Neuropsychologist 10, 54–65.Google Scholar
Archibald, S. J., & Kerns, K. A. (1999). Identification and description of new tests of executive functioning in children. Child Neuropsychology 5, 115–129.Google Scholar
Bachorowski, J. A., & Newman, J. P. (1985). Impulsivity in adults: Motor inhibition and time-interval estimation. Personality and Individual Differences 6, 133–136.Google Scholar
Bachorowski, J. A., & Newman, J. P. (1990). Impulsive motor behavior: Effects of personality and goal salience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58, 512–518.Google Scholar
Baddeley, A., Della Sala, S., Gray, C., Papagno, C., & Spinnler, H. (1997). Testing central executive functioning with a pencil-and-paper test. In P. Rabbit (Ed.), Methodology of frontal and executive function (pp. 61–80). Hove: Psychology Press.
Bailey, A., Phillips, W., & Rutter, M. (1996). Autism: Towards an integration of clinical, genetic, neuropsychological, and neurobiological perspectives. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 37, 89–126.Google Scholar
Baker, S. C., Rogers, R. D., Owen, A. M., Frith, C. D., Dolan, R. J., Frackowiak, R. S., & Robbins, T. W. (1996). Neural systems engaged by planning: A PET study of the Tower of London task. Neuropsychologia 34, 515–526.Google Scholar
Barkley, R. A. (1997a). Behavioural inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of AD/HD. Psychological Bulletin 121, 65–94.Google Scholar
Barkley, R. A. (1997b). ADHD and the nature of self-control. New York: Guilford Press.
Barkley, R. A., DuPaul, G. J., & Connor, D. F. (1999). Stimulants. In J. S. Werry & C. J. Aman (Eds.), Practitioner's guide to psychoactive drugs for children and adolescents (2nd ed., pp. 213–247). New York: Plenum Press.
Barnhill, J., & Horrigan, J. P. (2002). Tourette's syndrome and autism: A search for common ground. Mental Health Aspects of Developmental Disabilities 5, 7–15.Google Scholar
Baron–Cohen, S. (1995). Mindblindness: An essay on autism and theory of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Baron–Cohen, S., Mortimore, C., Moriarty, J., Izaguirre, J., & Robertson, M. (1999). The prevalence of Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome in children and adolescents with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 40, 213–218.Google Scholar
Becker, M. G., Isaac, W., & Hynd, G. W. (1987). Neuropsychological development of nonverbal behaviors attributed to frontal lobe functioning. Developmental Neuropsychology 3, 275–298.Google Scholar
Beery, K. E. (1997). The Beery–Buktenica Developmental Test of visual–motor integration (4th ed.). New York: Modern Curriculum Press.
Benton, A. L., & Hamsher, K. S. (1978). Multilingual aphasia examination (manual, revised). Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa.
Berch, D. B., Krikorian, R., & Huha, E. M. (1998). The Corsi block-tapping task: Methodological and theoretical considerations. Brain and Cognition 38, 317–338.Google Scholar
Berg, C. Z., Whitaker, A., Davies, D., Flament, M. F., & Rapoport, J. L. (1988). The survey form of the Leyton Obsessional Inventory—child version: Norms from an epidemiological study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 27, 759–763.Google Scholar
Berman, K. F., Ostrem, J. L., Randolph, C., Gold, J., Goldberg, T. E., Coppola, R., Carson, R. E., Herscovitch, P., & Weinberger, D. R. (1995). Physiological activation of a cortical network during performance of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A positron emission tomography study. Neuropsychologia 33, 1027–1046.Google Scholar
Beveridge, M., Jarrold, C., & Pettit, E. (2002). An experimental approach to executive fingerprinting in young children. Infant and Child Development 11, 107–123.Google Scholar
Bishop, D. V. (1998). Development of the Children's Communication Checklist (CCC): A method for assessing qualitative aspects of communicative impairment in children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 39, 879–891.Google Scholar
Bishop, D. V., & Baird, G. (2001). Parent and teacher report of pragmatic aspects of communication: Use of the Children's Communication Checklist in a clinical setting. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 43, 809–818.Google Scholar
Bradshaw, J. L. (2001). Developmental disorders of the frontostriatal system: Neuropsychological, neuropsychiatric, and evolutionary perspectives. Hove: Psychology Press Ltd.
Bradshaw, J. L., & Sheppard, D. M. (2000). The neurodevelopmental frontostriatal disorders: Evolutionary adaptiveness and anomalous lateralization. Brain and Language 73, 297–320.Google Scholar
Brand, N., Geenen, R., Oudenhoven, M., Lindenborn, B., Van der Ree, A., Cohen–Kettenis, P., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2002). Brief report: Cognitive functioning in children with Tourette's syndrome with and without comorbid ADHD. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 27, 203–208.Google Scholar
Brown, R. T., & Ivers, C. E. (1999). Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. In S. Goldstein & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), Handbook of neurodevelopmental and genetic disorders in children (pp. 185–215). New York: Guilford Press.
Buitelaar, J. K., & van de Wetering, B. J. M. (1996). Syndroom van Gilles de la Tourette: Een leidraad voor diagnostiek en behandeling. Assen, The Netherlands: Van Gorcum.
Burack, J. A., Iarocci, G., Bowler, D., & Mottron, L. (2002). Benefits and pitfalls in the merging of disciplines: The example of developmental psychopathology and the study of persons with autism. Development and Psychopathology 14, 225–237.Google Scholar
Burd, L., Fisher, W. W., Kerbeshian, J., & Arnold, M. E. (1987). Is development of Tourette disorder a marker for improvement in patients with autism and other pervasive developmental disorders? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 26, 162–165.Google Scholar
Burd, L., Kerbeshian, J., Wilkenheiser, M., & Fisher, W. (1986). A prevalence study of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome in North Dakota school-age children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 25, 552–553.Google Scholar
Cabeza, R., & Nyberg, L. (2000). Imaging cognition II: An empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 12, 1–47.Google Scholar
Casey, B. J., Tottenham, N., & Fossella, J. (2002). Clinical, imaging, lesion, and genetic approaches toward a model of cognitive control. Developmental Psychobiology 40, 237–254.Google Scholar
Channon, S., Flynn, D., & Robertson, M. M. (1992). Attentional deficits in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioral Neurology 5, 170–177.Google Scholar
Chugani, D. C. (2000). Autism. In M. Ernst & J. M. Rumsey (Eds.), Functional neuroimaging in child psychiatry (2nd ed., pp. 171–188). Cambridge: University Press.
Ciesielski, K. T., & Harris, R. J. (1997). Factors related to performance failure on executive tasks in autism. Child Neuropsychology 3, 1–12.Google Scholar
Cirino, P. T., Chapieski, M. L., & Massman, P. J. (2000). Card sorting performance and ADHD symptomatology in children and adolescents with Tourette syndrome. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 22, 245–256.Google Scholar
Clark, T., Freehan, C., Tinline, C., & Vostanis, P. (1999). Autistic symptoms in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 8, 50–55.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioural sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Cohen, D. J., Leckman, J. F., & Shaywitz, B. A. (1985). The Tourette syndrome and other tics. In D. Shaffer, A. A. Ehrhardt, & L. L. Greenhill (Eds.), The clinical guide to child psychiatry (pp. 3–28). New York: Free Press.
Corsi, P. M. (1972). Human memory and the medial temporal region of the brain. Dissertation Abstracts International, 34, 819B.Google Scholar
Dagher, A., Owen, A. M., Boecker, H., & Brooks, D. J. (1999). Mapping the network for planning: A correlational PET activation study with the Tower of London task. Brain 122, 1973–1987.Google Scholar
Dawson, G., Munson, J., Estes, A., Osterling, J., McPartland, J., Toth, K., Carver, L., & Abbott, R. (2002). Neurocognitive function and joint attention ability in young children with autism spectrum disorder versus developmental delay. Child Development 73, 345–358.Google Scholar
De Groot, C. M., Yeates, K. O., Baker, G. B., & Bornstein, R. A. (1997). Impaired neuropsychological functioning in Tourette's syndrome subjects with co-occurring obsessive–compulsive and attention deficit symptoms. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 9, 267–272.Google Scholar
De Jong, R., Coles, M. G., & Logan, G. D. (1995). Strategies and mechanisms in nonselective and selective inhibitory motor control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 21, 498–511.Google Scholar
Della Sala, S., Gray, C., Baddeley, A., Allamano, N., & Wilson, L. (1999). Pattern span: A tool for unwelding visuo-spatial memory. Neuropsychologia 37, 1189–1199.Google Scholar
Denckla, M. B. (1996). A theory and model of executive function: A neuropsychological perspective. In G. R. Lyon & N. A. Krasnegor (Eds.), Attention, memory, and executive function (pp. 263–277). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
Denckla, M. B., & Reiss, A. L. (1997). Prefrontal-subcortical circuits in developmental disorders. In N. A. Krasnegor & G. R. Lyon (Eds.), Development of the prefrontal cortex: Evolution, neurobiology, and behavior (pp. 283–293). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
Eliez, S., & Reiss, A. L. (2000). Annotation: MRI neuroimaging of childhood psychiatric disorders: A selective review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 41, 679–694.Google Scholar
Eslinger, P. J. (1996). Conceptualizing, describing, and measuring components of executive function. In G. R. Lyon & N. A. Krasnegor (Eds.), Attention, memory, and executive function (pp. 263–277). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
Eslinger, P. J., & Grattan, L. M. (1993). Frontal lobe and frontal-striatal substrates for different forms of human cognitive flexibility. Neuropsychologia 31, 17–28.Google Scholar
Ferdinand, R. F., Van der Ende, J., & Mesman, J. (1998). Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, DISC-IV. Nederlandse vertaling [Dutch translation]. Unpublished manuscript. Sophia Kinderziekenhuis, Rotterdam.
Filipek, P. A., Accardo, P. J., Baranek, G. T., Cook, E. H., Dawson, G., Gordon, B., Gravel, J. S., Johnson, C. P., Kallen, R. J., Levy, S. E., Minshew, N. J., Prizant, B. M., Rapin, I., Rogers, S. J., Stone, W. L., Teplin, S., Tuchman, R. F., & Volkmar, F. R. (1999). The screening and diagnosis of autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 29, 439–484.Google Scholar
Flament, M. F., Whitaker, A., Rapoport, J. L., Davies, M., Berg, C. J., Kalikow, K., Sceery, W., & Shaffer, D. (1988). Obsessive compulsive disorder in adolescence: An epidemiological study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 27, 764–771.Google Scholar
Fombonne, E. (1998). Epidemiology of autism and related conditions. In F. R. Volkmar (Ed.), Autism and pervasive developmental disorders (pp. 32–63). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Fredericksen, K. A., Cutting, L. E., Kates, W. R., Mostofsky, S. H., Singer, H. S., Cooper, K. L., Lanham, D. C., Denckla, M. B., & Kaufmann, W. E. (2002). Disproportionate increases of white matter in right frontal lobe in Tourette syndrome. Neurology 58, 85–89.Google Scholar
Frith, U. (2003). Autism: Explaining the enigma (2nd ed.). London: Blackwell.
Frith, C. D., Friston, K. J., Liddle, P. F., & Frackowiak, R. S. (1991). A PET study of word finding. Neuropsychologia 29, 1137–1148.Google Scholar
Fuster, J. M. (1997). The prefrontal cortex: Anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott–Raven.
Gaillard, W. D., Hertz–Pannier, L., Mott, S. H., Barnett, A. S., LeBihan, D., & Theodore, W. H. (2000). Functional anatomy of cognitive development: fMRI of verbal fluency in children and adults. Neurology 54, 180–185.Google Scholar
Gerstadt, C. L., Hong, Y. J., & Diamond, A. (1994). The relationship between cognition and action: Performance of children 2–7 years old on a Stroop-like day–night test. Cognition 53, 129–153.Google Scholar
Geurts, H. M., Verté, S., Oosterlaan, J., Roeyers, H., & Sergeant, J. A. (2004). How specific are executive functioning deficits in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 45, 836–854.Google Scholar
Ghaziuddin, M., Weidmer–Mikhail, E., & Ghaziuddin, N. (1998). Comorbidity of Asperger Syndrome: A preliminary report. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 4, 279–283.Google Scholar
Golden, G. S. (1990). Tourette syndrome: Recent advances. Neurologic Clinics 8, 705–714.Google Scholar
Grant, D. A., & Berg, E. A. (1948). A behavioral analysis of degree of reinforcement and ease of shifting to new responses in a Weigel-type card-sorting problem. Journal of Experimental Psychology 38, 404–411.Google Scholar
Green, S. B., Salkind, N. J., & Akey, T. M. (2000). Using SPSS for windows: Analyzing and understanding data. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice—Hall.
Greenhill, L. L. (1998). Childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Pharmacological treatments. In P. E. Nathan & J. M. Gorman (Eds.), A guide to treatments that work (pp. 42–64). London: Oxford University Press.
Griffith, E. M., Pennington, B. F., Wehner, E. A., & Rogers, S. J. (1999). Executive functions in young children with autism. Child Development 70, 817–832.Google Scholar
Groth–Marnat, G. (1997). Handbook of psychological assessment (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley.
Harris, E. L., Schuerholz, L. J., Singer, H. S., & Reader, M. J. (1995). Executive function in children with Tourette syndrome and/or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 1, 511–516.Google Scholar
Harris, M. E. (1990). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: Scoring program. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
Hartman, C. A., Geurts, H. M, Bennink, A. C., Verté, S., Roeyers, H., Sergeant, J. A., & Bishop, D. V. M. (1998). De Drie C's: Children's Communication Checklist [The three C's: Children's Communication Checklist. Dutch translation]. Unpublished manuscript, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam.
Hays, W. L. (1981). Statistics (3rd ed.). New York: Dryden Press.
Heaton, R. K. (1981). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
Heaton, R. K., Chelune, G. J., Talley, J. L., Kay, G. G., & Curtiss, G. (1993). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
Hughes, C., Plumet, M. H., & Leboyer, M. (1999). Towards a cognitive phenotype for autism: Increased prevalence of executive dysfunction and superior spatial span amongst siblings of children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 40, 705–718.Google Scholar
Jankovic, J. (2001). Tourette's syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine 345, 1184–1192.Google Scholar
Kadesjoe, B., & Gillberg, C. (2000). Tourette's Disorder: Epidemiology and comorbidity in primary school children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 39, 548–555.Google Scholar
Kates, W. R., Frederikse, M., Mostofsky, S. H., Folley, B. S., Cooper, K., Mazur–Hopkins, P., Kofman, O., Singer, H. S., Denckla, M. B., Pearlson, G. D., & Kaufmann, W. E. (2002). MRI parcellation of the frontal lobe in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or Tourette syndrome. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 116, 63–81.Google Scholar
King, N., Inglis, S., Jenkins, M., Myerson, N., & Ollendick, T. (1995). Test–retest reliability of the survey form of the Leyton Obsessional Inventory—Child version. Perceptual and Motor Skills 80, 1200–1202.Google Scholar
Krikorian, R., Bartok, J., & Gay, N. (1994). Tower of London procedure: A standard method and developmental data. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 16, 840–850.Google Scholar
Leckman, J. F., & Cohen, D. J. (1999). Tourette's syndrome: Tics, obsessions, compulsions: Developmental psychopathology and clinical care. New York: Wiley.
Le Couteur, A., Rutter, M., Lord, C., Rios, P., Robertson, S., Holdgrafer, M., & McLennan, J. (1989). Autism Diagnostic Interview: A standardized investigator-based instrument. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 19, 363–387.Google Scholar
Levin, H. S., Mendelsohn, D. B., Lilly, M. A., & Fletcher, J. M. (1994). Tower of London performance in relation to magnetic resonance imaging following closed head injury in children. Neuropsychology 8, 171–179.Google Scholar
Lezak, M. D. (1995). Neuropsychological assessment (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Liss, M., Fein, D., Allen, D., Dunn, M., Feinstein, C., Morris, R., Waterhouse, L., & Rapin, I. (2001). Executive functioning in high-functioning children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 42, 261–270.Google Scholar
Logan, G. D. (1994). On the ability to inhibit thought and action: A users' guide to the stop signal paradigm. In D. Dagenbach & T. H. Carr (Eds.), Inhibitory processes in attention, memory and language (pp. 189–239). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Logan, G. D., & Burkell, J. (1986). Dependence and independence in responding to double stimulation: A comparison of stop, change, and dual-task paradigms. Journal of Experimental Psychology 12, 549–563.Google Scholar
Lombardi, W. J., Andreason, P. J., Sirocco, K. Y., Rio, D. E., Gross, R. E., Umhau, J. C., & Hommer, D. W. (1999). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance following head injury: Dorsolateral fronto-striatal circuit activity predicts perseveration. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology 21, 2–16.Google Scholar
Lord, C. (1997). Diagnostic instruments in autism spectrum disorders. In D. J. Cohen & F. R. Volkmar (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders (2nd ed., pp. 460–483). New York: Wiley.
Lord, C., Rutter, M., & Le Couteur, A. (1994). Autism Diagnostic Interview—Revised: A revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 24, 659–685.Google Scholar
Lord, C., Storoschuk, S., Rutter, M., & Pickles, A. (1993). Using the ADI-R to diagnose autism in preschool children. Mental Health Journal 14, 234–252.Google Scholar
Mahone, E. M., Koth, C. W., Cutting, L., Singer, H. S., & Denckla, M. B. (2001). Executive function in fluency and recall measures among children with Tourette syndrome or ADHD. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 7, 102–111.Google Scholar
Manly, T., Anderson, V., Nimmo–Smith, I., Turner, A., Watson, P., & Robertson, I. H. (2001). The differential assessment of children's attention: The Test of Everyday Attention for Children (TEA-Ch), normative sample and ADHD performance. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 42, 1065–1081.Google Scholar
McDougle, C. J., Kresch, L. E., Goodman, W. K., Naylor, S. T., Volkmar, F. R., Cohen, D. J., & Price, L. H. (1995). A case-controlled study of repetitive thoughts and behavior in adults with autistic disorder and obsessive–compulsive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 152, 772–777.Google Scholar
Milner, B. (1971). Interhemispheric differences in the localization of psychological processes in man. British Medical Bulletin 27, 272–277.Google Scholar
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology 41, 49–100.Google Scholar
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Rettinger, D. A., Shah, P., & Hegarty, M. (2001). How are visuospatial working memory, executive functioning, and spatial abilities related? A latent variable analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 130, 621–640.Google Scholar
Muris, P., Steerneman, P., Merckelbach, H., Holdrinet, I., & Meesters, C. (1998). Comorbid anxiety symptoms in children with pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 12, 387–393.Google Scholar
Oosterlaan, J., & Sergeant, J. A. (1998). Response inhibition and response re-engagement in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, disruptive, anxious and normal children. Behavioral Brain Research 94, 33–43.Google Scholar
Oosterlaan, J., Scheres, A., Antrop, I., Roeyers, H., & Sergeant, J. A. (2000). Vragenlijst voor Gedragsproblemen bij Kinderen (VvGK). Nederlandse bewerking van de Disruptive Behavior Disorders Rating Scale [Dutch translation of the Disruptive Behavior Disorders Rating Scale]. Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Ozonoff, S. (1997). Components of executive function in autism and other disorders. In J. Russell (Ed.), Autism as an executive disorder (pp. 179–211). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ozonoff, S., & Jensen, J. (1999). Brief report: Specific executive function profiles in three neurodevelopmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 29, 171–177.Google Scholar
Ozonoff, S., & McEvoy, R. E. (1994). A longitudinal study of executive function and theory of mind development in autism. Development and Psychopathology 6, 415–431.Google Scholar
Ozonoff, S., Pennington, B. F., & Rogers, S. J. (1991). Executive function deficits in high-functioning autistic individuals: Relationship to theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 32, 1081–1105.Google Scholar
Ozonoff, S., & Strayer, D. L. (1997). Inhibitory function in nonretarded children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 27, 59–77.Google Scholar
Ozonoff, S., Strayer, D. L., McMahon, W. M., & Filloux, F. (1994). Executive function abilities in autism and Tourette syndrome: An information processing approach. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 35, 1015–1032.Google Scholar
Ozonoff, S., Strayer, D. L., McMahon, W. M., & Filloux, F. (1998). Inhibitory deficits in Tourette syndrome: A function of comorbidity and symptom severity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 39, 1109–1118.Google Scholar
Pascualvaca, D. M., Fantie, B. D., Papageorgiou, M., & Mirsky, A. F. (1998). Attentional capacities in children with autism: Is there a general deficit in shifting focus? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 28, 467–478.Google Scholar
Passler, M. A., Isaac, W., Hynd, G. W. (1985). Neuropsychological development of behavior attributed to frontal lobe functioning in children. Developmental Neuropsychology 1, 349–370.Google Scholar
Pelham, W., Gnagy, E. M., Greenslade, K. E., & Milich, R. (1992). Teacher ratings of DSM-III-R symptoms for the disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 31, 210–218.Google Scholar
Pennington, B. F., Bennetto, L., McAleer, O., & Roberts, R. J. (1996). Executive functions and working memory. In G. R. Lyon & N. A. Krasnegor (Eds.), Attention, memory and executive function (pp. 327–348). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996). Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 37, 51–87.Google Scholar
Peterson, B. S., & Klein, J. E. (1997). Neuroimaging of Tourette's syndrome neurobiologic substrate. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America 6, 343–364.Google Scholar
Peterson, B. S., Staib, L., Scahill, L., Zhang, H., Anderson, C., Leckman, J. F., Cohen, D. J., Gore, J. C., Albert, J., & Webster, R. (2001). Regional brain and ventricular volumes in Tourette syndrome. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 427–440.Google Scholar
Petrides, M., Alivisatos, B., Evans, A. C., & Meyer, E. (1993). Dissociation of human mid-dorsolateral from posterior dorsolateral frontal cortex in memory processing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 90, 873–877.Google Scholar
Petrides, M., & Milner, B. (1982). Deficits on subject-ordered tasks after frontal- and temporal-lobe lesions in man. Neuropsychologia 20, 249–262.Google Scholar
Phelps, E. A., Hyder, F., Blamire, A. M., & Shulman, R. G. (1997). fMRI of the prefrontal cortex during overt verbal fluency. Neuroreport: An International Journal for the Rapid Communication of Research in Neuroscience 8, 561–565.Google Scholar
Rabbitt, P. (1997). Introduction: Methodologies and models in the study of executive function. In P. Rabbitt (Ed.), Methodology of frontal and executive function. Hove: Psychology Press.
Rapport, M. D., Chung, K. M., Shore, G., Denney, C. B., & Isaacs, P. (2000). Upgrading the science and technology of assessment and diagnosis: Laboratory and clinic-based assessment of children with ADHD. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 29, 555–568.Google Scholar
Reader, M. J., Harris, E. L., Schuerholz, L. J., & Denckla, M. B. (1994). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and executive dysfunction. Developmental Neuropsychology 10, 493–512.Google Scholar
Reitan, R. M., & Wolfson, D. (1994). A selective and critical review of neuropsychological deficits and the frontal lobes. Neuropsychology Review 4, 161–198.Google Scholar
Rezai, K., Andreasen, N. C., Alliger, R., Cohen, G., Swayze, V., & O'Leary, D. S. (1993). The neuropsychology of the prefrontal cortex. Archives of Neurology 50, 636–642.Google Scholar
Riehemann, S., Volz, H. P., Stuetzer, P., Smesny, S., Gaser, C., & Sauer, H. (2001). Hypofrontality in neuroleptic-naive schizophrenic patients during the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: An fMRI study. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 251, 66–71.Google Scholar
Ringman, J. M., & Jankovic, J. (2000). Occurrence of tics in Asperger's syndrome and autistic disorder. Journal of Child Neurology 15, 394–400.Google Scholar
Roberts, R. J., & Pennington, B. F. (1996). An interactive framework for examining prefrontal cognitive processes. Developmental Neuropsychology 12, 105–126.Google Scholar
Rogers, S. (1999). An examination of the imitation deficits in autism. In J. Nadel & G. Butterworth (Eds.), Imitation in infancy: Cambridge studies in cognitive perceptual development (pp. 254–283). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Rogers, S., & Bennetto, L. (2000). Intersubjectivity in autism: The roles of imitation and executive function. In A. M. Wetherby & B. M. Prizant (Eds.), Autism spectrum disorders: A transactional developmental perspective (pp. 79–107). Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.
Rowe, J. B., Owen, A. M., Johnsrude, I. S., & Passingham, R. E. (2001). Imaging the mental components of a planning task. Neuropsychologia 39, 315–327.Google Scholar
Rubia, K., Overmeyer, S., Taylor, E., Brammer, M., Williams, S., Simmons, A., & Bullmore, E. T. (1999). Hypofrontality in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder during higher-order motor control: A study with functional MRI. American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 891–896.Google Scholar
Russell, J. (1997). Autism as an executive disorder. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Russell, J., Saltmarsh, R., & Hill, E. (1999). What do executive factors contribute to the failure on false belief tasks by children with autism? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 40, 859–868.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., & Bailey, A. (1999). Thinking and relationships: Mind and brain (some reflections on theory of mind and autism). In S. Baron–Cohen, H. Tager–Flusberg, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Understanding other minds (pp. 481–504). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Schellig, D. (1997). Block-Tapping-Test. Lisse: Swets & Zeitlinger.
Schlosser, M. J., Aoyagi, N., Fulbright, R. K., Gore, J. C., & McCarthy, G. (1998). Functional MRI studies of auditory comprehension. Human Brain Mapping 6, 1–13.Google Scholar
Scholing, A., & Veenstra, I. (1997). De ouderversie van de Leyton Obsessional Compulsive Inventory [The parent version of the Leyton Obsessional Compulsive Inventory]. Unpublished manuscript, Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.
Schuerholz, L. J., Baumgardner, T. L., Singer, H. S., Reiss, A. L., & Denckla, M. B. (1996). Neuropsychological status of children with Tourette's syndrome with and without attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurology 46, 958–965.Google Scholar
Schwab–Stone, M. E., Shaffer, D., Dulcan, M. K., Jensen, P. S., Fisher, P., Bird, H. R., Goodman, S. H., Lahey, B. B., Lichtman, J. H., Canino, G., Rubio–Stipec, M., & Rae, D. S. (1996). Criterion validity of the NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version 2.3 (DISC-2.3). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 35, 878–888.Google Scholar
Sergeant, J. A., Geurts, H., & Oosterlaan, J. (2002). How specific is a deficit of executive functioning for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Behavioural Brain Research 130, 3–28.Google Scholar
Sergeant, J. A., & van der Meere, J. J. (1990). Additive factor methodology applied to psychopathology with special reference to hyperactivity. Acta Psychologica 74, 277–295.Google Scholar
Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Lucas, C. P., Dulcan, M. K., & Schwab–Stone, M. E. (2000). NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): Description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 39, 28–38.Google Scholar
Shallice, T. (1982). Specific impairments of planning. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 298, 199–209.Google Scholar
Sheppard, D. M., Bradshaw, J. L., Purcell, R., & Pantelis, C. (1999). Tourette's and comorbid syndromes: Obsessive compulsive and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. A common etiology? Clinical Psychology Review 19, 531–552.Google Scholar
Shu, B. C., Lung, F. W., Tien, A. Y., & Chen, B. C. (2001). Executive function deficits in non-retarded autistic children. Autism 5, 165–174.Google Scholar
Silverstein, S. M., Como, P. G., Palumbo, D. R., West, L. L., & Osborn, L. M. (1995). Multiple sources of attentional dysfunction in adults with Tourette's syndrome: Comparison with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychology 9, 157–164.Google Scholar
Singer, H. S. (1997). Neurobiology of Tourette syndrome. Neurologic Clinics 15, 357–379.Google Scholar
Sivan, A. B. (1992). Benton Visual Retention Test (5th ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
Snijders, J. T., Tellegen, P. J., & Laros, J. A. (1989). Snijders–Oomen Non-Verbal Intelligence Tests: SON-R 5,5-17. Manual and research report. Groningen: Wolters–Noordhoff.
Spencer, T., Biederman, J., Harding, M., O'Donnell, D., Wilens, T., Faraone, S., Coffey, B., & Geller, D. (1998). Disentangling the overlap between Tourette's disorder and ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 39, 1037–1044.Google Scholar
Stern, E., Silbersweig, D. A., Chee, K. Y., Holmes, A., Robertson, M. M., Trimble, M., Frith, C. D., Frackowiak, R. S. J., & Dolan, R. J. (2000). A functional neuroanatomy of tics in Tourette syndrome. Archives of General Psychiatry 57, 741–748.Google Scholar
Sverd, J. (1991). Tourette syndrome and autistic disorder: A significant relationship. American Journal of Medical Genetics 39, 173–179.Google Scholar
Sverd, J., Montero, G., & Gurevich, N. (1993). Cases for an association between Tourette syndrome, autistic disorder, and schizophrenia-like disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 23, 407–413.Google Scholar
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1996). Using multivariate statistics (3rd ed.). New York: Harper–Collins College Publishers.
Tellegen, P., & Laros, J. (1993). The construction and validation of a nonverbal test of intelligence: The revision of the Snijders–Oomen Tests. European Journal of Psychological Assessment 9, 147–157.Google Scholar
Tranel, D., Anderson, S. W., & Benton, A. (1994). Development of the concept of “executive function” and its relationship to the frontal lobes. In F. Boller & J. Grafmann (Eds.), Handbook of neuropsychology (pp. 125–148). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.
Turner, M. A. (1999a). Generating novel ideas: Fluency performance in high-functioning and learning disabled individuals with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 40, 189–201.Google Scholar
Turner, M. A. (1999b). Repetitive behaviour in autism: A review of psychological research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 40, 839–849.Google Scholar
Van Haasen, P. P., De Bruyn, E. E. J., Pijl, Y. J., Poortinga, Y. H., Spelberg, L. H. C., Vander Steene, G., Coetsier, P., Spoelders–Claeys, R., & Stinissen, J. (1986). WISC-R: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised. Nederlandstalige uitgave. Handleiding voor instructies en scoring. Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger B.V.
Volkmar, F. R. (1999). Practice parameters for the assessment and treatment of children, adolescents, and adults with autism and other pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 38, 32S–54S.Google Scholar
Welsh, M. C., & Pennington, B. F. (1988). Assesing frontal lobe functioning in children: Views from developmental psychology. Developmental Neuropsychology 4, 199–230.Google Scholar
Weynandt, L. L., & Willis, W. G. (1994). Executive functions in school-aged children: Potential efficacy of tasks in discriminating clinical groups. Developmental Neuropsychology 10, 27–38.Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., Burack, J. A., Boseovski, J. J., Jacques, S., & Frye, D. (2001). A cognitive complexity and control framework for the study of autism. In J. A. Burack, T. Charman, N. Yirmiya, & P. R. Zelazo (Eds.), The development of autism: Perspectives from theory and research (pp. 195–217). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Zelazo, P. D., Carter, A., Reznick, J. S., & Frye, D. (1997). Early development of executive function: A problem-solving framework. Review of General Psychology 1, 198–226.Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., & Müller, U. (2002). Executive function in typical and atypical development. In U. Goswami (Ed.), Blackwell handbook of childhood cognitive development (pp. 445–469). London: Blackwell.