Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-13T01:36:21.346Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Fuel to the fire: The escalating interplay of attachment and maltreatment in the transgenerational transmission of psychopathology in families living in refugee camps

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 June 2020

Florian Scharpf Open the ORCID record for Florian Scharpf [Opens in a new window] ,
Getrude Mkinga ,
Frank Neuner ,
Maregesi Machumu  and
Tobias Hecker Open the ORCID record for Tobias Hecker [Opens in a new window]
Florian Scharpf*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
Getrude Mkinga
Affiliation:
Department of Educational Psychology, University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Frank Neuner
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany
Maregesi Machumu
Affiliation:
Department of Educational Psychology and Curriculum Studies, Dar es salaam University College of Education, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Tobias Hecker
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
*
Author for correspondence: Florian Scharpf, Department of Psychology, Bielefeld University, P.O. Box 100131, 33501Bielefeld, Germany; E-mail: florian.scharpf@uni-bielefeld.de.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Maltreatment by parents can be conceptualized as pathogenic escalations of a disturbed parent–child relationship that have devastating consequences for children's development and mental health. Although parental psychopathology has been shown to be a risk factor both for maltreatment and insecure attachment representations, these factors` joint contribution to child psychopathology has not been investigated. In a sample of Burundian refugee families living in refugee camps in Western Tanzania, the associations between attachment representations, maltreatment, and psychopathology were examined by conducting structured interviews with 226 children aged 7 to 15 and both their parents. Structural equation modeling revealed that children's insecure attachment representations and maltreatment by mothers fully mediated the relation between maternal and child psychopathology [model fit: comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.96; root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.05]. A direct association between paternal and child psychopathology was observed (model fit: CFI = 0.96; RMSEA = 0.05). The findings suggest a vicious cycle, wherein an insecure attachment to a mother suffering from psychopathology may be linked to children's risk to be maltreated, which may reinforce insecure representations and perpetuate the pathogenic relational experience. Interventions targeting the attachment relationship and parental mental health may prevent negative child outcomes.

Keywords

attachmentchild psychopathologymaltreatmentparental psychopathologyrefugee families
Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 33 , Issue 4 , October 2021 , pp. 1308 - 1321
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Almqvist, K., & Broberg, A. G. (2003). Young children traumatized by organized violence together with their mothers – The critical effects of damaged internal representations. Attachment & Human Development, 5, 367–380. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730310001633447CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Asner-Self, K. K., Schreiber, J. B., & Marotta, S. A. (2006). A cross-cultural analysis of the Brief Symptom Inventory-18. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12, 367–375. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.12.2.367CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atkinson, L., Paglia, A., Coolbear, J., Niccols, A., Parker, K. C., & Guger, S. (2000). Attachment security: A meta-analysis of maternal mental health correlates. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 1019–1040. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7358(99)00023-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barker, B., Iles, J. E., & Ramchandani, P. G. (2017). Fathers, fathering and child psychopathology. Current Opinion in Psychology, 15, 87–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COPSYC.2017.02.015CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belsky, J. (1980). Child maltreatment an ecological integration. American Psychologist, 35, 320–335. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.35.4.320CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bentler, P. M., & Chou, C.-P. (1987). Practical issues in structural modeling. Sociological Methods and Research, 16, 78–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124187016001004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betancourt, T. S., Yudron, M., Wheaton, W., & Smith-Fawzi, M. C. (2012). Caregiver and adolescent mental health in Ethiopian Kunama refugees participating in an emergency education program. Journal of Adolescent Health, 51, 357–365. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.01.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Black, D., Heyman, R. E., & Smith Slep, A. M. (2001). Risk factors for physical abuse. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 6, 121–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-1789(00)00021-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blevins, C. A., Weathers, F. W., Davis, M. T., Witte, T. K., & Domino, J. L. (2015). The posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5): Development and initial psychometric evaluation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28, 489–498. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22059CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bolger, K. E., & Patterson, C. J. (2001). Developmental pathways from child maltreatment to peer rejection. Child Development, 72, 549–568. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00296CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bosquet Enlow, M., Egeland, B., Carlson, E., Blood, E., & Wright, R. J. (2014). Mother-infant attachment and the intergenerational transmission of posttraumatic stress disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 26, 41–65. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000515CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss. Vol. l: Attachment (2nd ed.). New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Brumariu, L. E., & Kerns, K. A. (2010). Parent–child attachment and internalizing symptoms in childhood and adolescence: A review of empirical findings and future directions. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 177–203. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409990344CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bryant, R. A., Edwards, B., Creamer, M., O'Donnell, M., Forbes, D., Felmingham, K. L., … Hadzi-Pavlovic, D. (2018). The effect of post-traumatic stress disorder on refugees’ parenting and their children's mental health: A cohort study. The Lancet Public Health, 3, e249–e258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(18)30051-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Catani, C., Jacob, N., Schauer, E., Kohila, M., & Neuner, F. (2008). Family violence, war, and natural disasters: A study of the effect of extreme stress on children's mental health in Sri Lanka. BMC Psychiatry, 8, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-8-33CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Causadias, J. M., & Cicchetti, D. (2018). Cultural development and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 30, 1549–1555. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418001220CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chaffin, M., Silovsky, J. F., Funderburk, B., Valle, L. A., Brestan, E. V., Balachova, T., … Bonner, B. L. (2004). Parent-child interaction therapy with physically abusive parents: Efficacy for reducing future abuse reports. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 500–510. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.72.3.500CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Charak, R., de Jong, J. T. V. M., Berckmoes, L. H., Ndayisaba, H., & Reis, R. (2017). Assessing the factor structure of the childhood trauma questionnaire, and cumulative effect of abuse and neglect on mental health among adolescents in conflict-affected Burundi. Child Abuse and Neglect, 72, 383–392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.09.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Barnett, D. (1991). Attachment organization in maltreated preschoolers. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 397. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400007598CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Lynch, M. (1993). Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: Consequences for children's development. Psychiatry, 56, 96–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1993.11024624CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (2006). Fostering secure attachment in infants in maltreating families through preventive interventions. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 623–649.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2005). Child maltreatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 409–438. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144029CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2016). Child maltreatment and developmental psychopathology: A multilevel perspective. In Cicchetti, D. (Ed.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Maladaptation and psychopathology (pp. 457–512). Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., & Deblinger, E. (2016). Treating trauma and traumatic grief in children and adolescents. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Cullerton-Sen, C., Cassidy, A. R., Murray-Close, D., Cicchetti, D., Crick, N. R., & Rogosch, F. A. (2008). Childhood maltreatment and the development of relational and physical aggression: The importance of a gender-informed approach. Child Development, 79, 1736–1751. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01222.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (1994). Maternal depression and child development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 73–122. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1994.tb01133.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Currie, J., & Widom, C. S. (2010). Long-term consequences of child abuse and neglect on adult economic well-being. Child Maltreatment, 15, 111–120. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559509355316CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cyr, C., Euser, E. M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2010). Attachment security and disorganization in maltreating and high-risk families: A series of meta-analyses. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 87–108. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409990289CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Danese, A., & McEwen, B. S. (2012). Adverse childhood experiences, allostasis, allostatic load, and age-related disease. Physiology & Behavior, 106, 29–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Haene, L., Grietens, H., & Verschueren, K. (2010). Adult attachment in the context of refugee traumatisation: The impact of organized violence and forced separation on parental states of mind regarding attachment. Attachment & Human Development, 12, 249–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616731003759732CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Jong, J. P., Scholte, W. F., Koeter, M. W., & Hart, A. A. (2000). The prevalence of mental health problems in Rwandan and Burundese refugee camps. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 102, 171–177.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Derogatis, L. R. (2000). BSI-18: Brief symptom inventory 18 – Administration, scoring, and procedures manual. Minneapolis, MN: NCS Pearson.Google Scholar
De Wolff, M. S., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, 68, 571–591. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1997.tb04218.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fearon, R. P., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Lapsley, A.-M., & Roisman, G. I. (2010). The significance of insecure attachment and disorganization in the development of children's externalizing behavior: A meta-analytic study. Child Development, 81, 435–456. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01405.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Field, N. P., Muong, S., & Sochanvimean, V. (2013). Parental styles in the intergenerational transmission of trauma stemming from the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 83, 483–494. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajop.12057CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
George, C. (1996). A representational perspective of child abuse and prevention: Internal working models of attachment and caregiving. Child Abuse & Neglect, 20, 411–424. https://doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134(96)00016-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gershoff, E. T. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 539–579. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gershoff, E. T., Lansford, J. E., Sexton, H. R., Davis-Kean, P., & Sameroff, A. J. (2012). Longitudinal links between spanking and children's externalizing behaviors in a national sample of White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian American families. Child Development, 83, 838–843. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01732.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gifford-Smith, M. (2000). People In My Life. Retrieved from http://www.fasttrackproject.org.Google Scholar
Goodman, R., Ford, T., Simmons, H., Gatward, R., & Meltzer, H. (2000). Using the strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ) to screen for child psychiatric disorders in a community sample. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 534–539. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.177.6.534CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Graham, C. A., & Easterbrooks, M. A. (2000). School-aged children's vulnerability to depressive symptomatology: The role of attachment security, maternal depressive symptomatology, and economic risk. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 201–213. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400002054CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hecker, T., Hermenau, K., Salmen, C., Teicher, M., & Elbert, T. (2016). Harsh discipline relates to internalizing problems and cognitive functioning: Findings from a cross-sectional study with school children in Tanzania. BMC Psychiatry, 16, 118. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-016-0828-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hecker, T., Huber, S., Maier, T., & Maercker, A. (2018). Differential associations among PTSD and complex PTSD symptoms and traumatic experiences and postmigration difficulties in a culturally diverse refugee sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 31, 795–804. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22342CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hecker, T., Radtke, K. M., Hermenau, K., Papassotiropoulos, A., & Elbert, T. (2016). Associations among child abuse, mental health, and epigenetic modifications in the proopiomelanocortin gene (POMC): A study with children in Tanzania. Development and Psychopathology, 28, 1401–1412. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415001248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacob, N., Neuner, F., Maedl, A., Schaal, S., & Elbert, T. (2014). Dissemination of psychotherapy for trauma spectrum disorders in postconflict settings: A randomized controlled trial in Rwanda. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 83, 354–363. https://doi.org/10.1159/000365114CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 706–716. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02202.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lambert, J. E., Holzer, J., & Hasbun, A. (2014). Association between parents’ PTSD severity and children's psychological distress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 27, 9–17. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21891CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lansford, J. E., Dodge, K. A., Malone, P. S., Bacchini, D., Zelli, A., Chaudhary, N., … Quinn, N. (2005). Physical discipline and children's adjustment: Cultural normativeness as a moderator. Child Development, 76, 1234–1246. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00847.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieberman, M., Doyle, A.-B., & Markiewicz, D. (1999). Developmental patterns in security of attachment to mother and father in late childhood and early adolescence: Associations with peer relations. Child Development, 70, 202–213. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00015CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lieberman, A. F., van Horn, P., & Ippen, C. G. (2005). Toward evidence-based treatment: Child-parent psychotherapy with preschoolers exposed to marital violence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 1241–1248. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000181047.59702.58CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Little, T. D., Cunningham, W. A., Shahar, G., & Widaman, K. F. (2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9, 151–173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Little, T. D., Rhemtulla, M., Gibson, K., & Schoemann, A. M. (2013). Why the items versus parcels controversy needn't be one. Psychological Methods, 18, 285–300. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033266CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lynch, M., & Cicchetti, D. (1991). Patterns of relatedness in maltreated and nonmaltreated children: Connections among multiple representational models. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 207–226. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400005241CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mackinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7, 83–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.83CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martins, C., & Gaffan, E. A. (2000). Effects of early maternal depression on patterns of infant–mother attachment: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 41, 737–746. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00661CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Matsunaga, M. (2008). Item parceling in structural equation modeling: A primer. Communication Methods and Measures, 2, 260–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312450802458935CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maughan, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2002). Impact of child maltreatment and interadult violence on children's emotion regulation abilities and socioemotional adjustment. Child Development, 73, 1525–1542. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00488CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meyer, S. R., Steinhaus, M., Bangirana, C., Onyango-Mangen, P., & Stark, L. (2017). The influence of caregiver depression on adolescent mental health outcomes: Findings from refugee settlements in Uganda. BMC Psychiatry, 17, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-017-1566-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moreira, H., Fonseca, A., & Canavarro, M. C. (2017). Assessing attachment to parents and peers in middle childhood: Psychometric studies of the Portuguese version of the people in my life questionnaire. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26, 1318–1333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0654-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mulder, T. M., Kuiper, K. C., van der Put, C. E., Stams, G.-J. J. M., & Assink, M. (2018). Risk factors for child neglect: A meta-analytic review. Child Abuse & Neglect, 77, 198–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHIABU.2018.01.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neuner, F., Onyut, P. L., Ertl, V., Odenwald, M., Schauer, E., & Elbert, T. (2008). Treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder by trained lay counselors in an African refugee settlement: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 686–694. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.76.4.686CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Neuner, F., Schauer, M., Karunakara, U., Klaschik, C., Robert, C., & Elbert, T. (2004). Psychological trauma and evidence for enhanced vulnerability for posttraumatic stress disorder through previous trauma among West Nile refugees. BMC Psychiatry, 4, 34. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-4-34CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nkuba, M., Hermenau, K., & Hecker, T. (2018). Violence and maltreatment in Tanzanian families—Findings from a nationally representative sample of secondary school students and their parents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 77, 110–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CHIABU.2018.01.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Callaghan, P., McMullen, J., Shannon, C., Rafferty, H., & Black, A. (2013). A randomized controlled trial of trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy for sexually exploited, war-affected Congolese girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 52, 359–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.01.013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Panter-Brick, C., Grimon, M. P., & Eggerman, M. (2014). Caregiver - child mental health: A prospective study in conflict and refugee settings. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 313–327. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12167CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pfeiffer, E., Sukale, T., Müller, L. R. F., Plener, P. L., Rosner, R., Fegert, J. M., … Unterhitzenberger, J. (2019). The symptom representation of posttraumatic stress disorder in a sample of unaccompanied and accompanied refugee minors in Germany: A network analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10, 1675990. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1675990.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Puffer, E. S., Green, E. P., Chase, R. M., Sim, A. L., Zayzay, J., Friis, E., … Boone, L. (2015). Parents make the difference: A randomized-controlled trial of a parenting intervention in Liberia. Global Mental Health, 2, e15. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2015.12CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Punamäki, R.-L., Qouta, S. R., & Peltonen, K. (2017). Family systems approach to attachment relations, war trauma, and mental health among Palestinian children and parents. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 8, 1439649. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2018.1439649CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
R Core Team. (2019). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.Google Scholar
Reed, R. V., Fazel, M., Jones, L., Panter-Brick, C., & Stein, A. (2012). Mental health of displaced and refugee children resettled in low-income and middle-income countries: Risk and protective factors. The Lancet, 379, 250–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60050-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ridenour, T. A., Greenberg, M. T., & Cook, E. T. (2006). Structure and validity of people in my life: A self-report measure of attachment in late childhood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 1037–1053. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-006-9070-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ringoot, A. P., Tiemeier, H., Jaddoe, V. W. V., So, P., Hofman, A., Verhulst, F. C., & Jansen, P. W. (2015). Parental depression and child well-being: Young children's self-reports helped addressing biases in parent reports. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 68, 928–938. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLINEPI.2015.03.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rosseel, Y. (2012). Lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48, 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruf, M., Schauer, M., Neuner, F., Catani, C., Schauer, E., & Elbert, T. (2010). Narrative exposure therapy for 7- to 16-year-olds: A randomized controlled trial with traumatized refugee children. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 23, 437–445. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20548CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saile, R., Ertl, V., Neuner, F., & Catani, C. (2014). Does war contribute to family violence against children? Findings from a two-generational multi-informant study in Northern Uganda. Child Abuse and Neglect, 38, 135–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.10.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saile, R., Ertl, V., Neuner, F., & Catani, C. (2016). Children of the postwar years: A two-generational multilevel risk assessment of child psychopathology in Northern Uganda. Development and Psychopathology, 28, 607–620. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415001066CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scharpf, F., Kyaruzi, E., Landolt, M. A., & Hecker, T. (2019). Prevalence and co-existence of morbidity of posttraumatic stress and functional impairment among Burundian refugee children and their parents. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10, 1676005. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2019.1676005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shrout, PE, & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7(4), 422–445. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.4.422CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sidebotham, P., & Golding, J. (2001). Child maltreatment in the “Children of the nineties”: A longitudinal study of parental risk factors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25, 1177–1200. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(01)00261-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sierau, S., White, L. O., Klein, A. M., Manly, J. T., von Klitzing, K., & Herzberg, P. Y. (2018). Assessing psychological and physical abuse from children's perspective: Factor structure and psychometric properties of the picture-based, modularized child-report version of the Parent–Child Conflict Tactics Scale – Revised (CTSPC-R). PloS One, 13, e0205401. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205401CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sim, A., Bowes, L., & Gardner, F. (2018). Modeling the effects of war exposure and daily stressors on maternal mental health, parenting, and child psychosocial adjustment: A cross-sectional study with Syrian refugees in Lebanon. Global Mental Health, 5, e40. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh.2018.33CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Song, S. J., Tol, W., & de Jong, J. (2014). Indero: Intergenerational trauma and resilience between Burundian former child soldiers and their children. Family Process, 53, 239–251. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12071CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinberg, A. M., Brymer, M. J., Kim, S., Briggs, E. C., Ippen, C. G., Ostrowski, S. A., … Pynoos, R. S. (2013). Psychometric properties of the UCLA PTSD reaction index: Part I. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21780CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stith, S. M., Liu, T., Davies, L. C., Boykin, E. L., Alder, M. C., Harris, J. M., … Dees, J. E. M. E. G. (2009). Risk factors in child maltreatment: A meta-analytic review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14, 13–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2006.03.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stoltenborgh, M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Alink, L. R. A., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2015). The prevalence of child maltreatment across the globe: Review of a series of meta-analyses. Child Abuse Review, 24, 37–50. https://doi.org/10.1002/car.2353CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Finkelhor, D., Moore, D. W., & Runyan, D. (1998). Identification of child maltreatment with the parent–child conflict tactics scales: Development and psychometric data for a national sample of American parents. Child Abuse and Neglect, 22, 249–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00174-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stronach, E. P., Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F., & Cicchetti, D. (2013). Preventive interventions and sustained attachment security in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 919–930. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000278CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stronach, E. P., Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F., Oshri, A., Manly, J. T., & Cicchetti, D. (2011). Child maltreatment, attachment security, and internal representations of mother and mother–child relationships. Child Maltreatment, 16, 137–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559511398294CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thomas, R., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2011). Accumulating evidence for parent-child interaction therapy in the prevention of child maltreatment. Child Development, 82, 177–192. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01548.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Timshel, I., Montgomery, E., & Dalgaard, N. T. (2017). A systematic review of risk and protective factors associated with family related violence in refugee families. Child Abuse and Neglect, 70, 315–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.06.023CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Toth, S. L., Gravener-Davis, J. A., Guild, D. J., & Cicchetti, D. (2013). Relational interventions for child maltreatment: Past, present, and future perspectives. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1601–1617. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579413000795CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Unterhitzenberger, J., Wintersohl, S., Lang, M., König, J., & Rosner, R. (2019). Providing manualized individual trauma-focused CBT to unaccompanied refugee minors with uncertain residence status: A pilot study. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 13, 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-019-0282-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Valentino, K. (2017). Relational interventions for maltreated children. Child Development, 88, 359–367. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12735CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Ee, E., Kleber, R. J., & Jongmans, M. J. (2016). Relational patterns between caregivers with PTSD and their nonexposed children. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 17, 186–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838015584355CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Ee, E., Sleijpen, M., Kleber, R. J., & Jongmans, M. J. (2013). Father-involvement in a refugee sample: Relations between posttraumatic stress and caregiving. Family Process, 52, 723–735. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12045CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vossoughi, N., Jackson, Y., Gusler, S., & Stone, K. (2018). Mental health outcomes for youth living in refugee camps. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 19(5), 528–542. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838016673602.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weijers, D., van Steensel, F. J. A., & Bögels, S. M. (2018). Associations between psychopathology in mothers, fathers and their children: A structural modeling approach. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27, 1992–2003. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-018-1024-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, S. K., & Kelly, F. D. (2005). Relationships among involvement, attachment, and behavioral problems in adolescence: Examining father's influence. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 25, 168–196. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431604274178CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilson, S., & Durbin, C. E. (2010). Effects of paternal depression on fathers’ parenting behaviors: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 167–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.10.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: File

Scharpf et al. supplementary material

Figures A and B

Download Scharpf et al. supplementary material(File)
File 207.7 KB