Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-mlc7c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T05:43:56.008Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Gender and the development of conduct disorder

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 October 2008

Mark Zoccolillo
Mark Zoccolillo*
Affiliation:
McGill University, Quebec, Canada
*
Address correspondence to: Dr. Mark Zoccolillo, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Psychiatry, McGill University, 4018 St. Catherine Street West, Westmount, Quebec H3Z 1P2, Canada.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

A discussion of gender and conduct disorder must first answer the basic questions of whether or not there are any differences in prevalence, symptoms, and correlates of conduct disorder by sex. Several epidemiologic studies have found no difference in the prevalence of conduct disorder in adolescence by sex. Correlates of conduct disorder in girls are similar to those in boys (including aggression and internalizing disorders), once base rates of the correlates are accounted for. A major problem in studying conduct disorder in girls is the lack of appropriate criteria; the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (3rd ed., rev.) criteria are not appropriate for girls. A case is made for sex-specific criteria for conduct disorder that take into account known differences in male and female childhood cultures and base-rate differences in aggression and criminality. Until basic issues of diagnosis and prevalence are resolved, other issues such as risk factors and developmental pathways cannot be successfully addressed.

Type
Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 5 , Issue 1-2 , Winter-Spring 1993 , pp. 65 - 78
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 1993

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed., rev.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Anderson, J. C., Williams, S., McGee, R., & Silva, P. A. (1987). DSM-III disorders in preadolescent children. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 69–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bohman, M., Cloninger, C. R., Von Knorring, A. L., & Sigvardsson, S. (1984). An adoption study of somatoform disorders III. Cross-fostering analysis and genetic relationship to alcoholism and criminality. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 872–878.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooks-Gunn, J., & Warren, M. P. (1989). Biological and social contributions to negative affect in young adolescent girls. Child Development, 60, 40–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bureau of the Census. (1989). Statistical abstract of the United States 1989. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office.Google Scholar
Cadoret, R. J. (1978). Psychopathology in adoptedaway offspring of biologic parents with antisocial behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry, 35, 176–184.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cloninger, C. R., & Guze, S. B. (1970). Psychiatric illness and female criminality: The role of sociopathy and hysteria in the antisocial woman. American Journal of Psychiatry, 127, 303–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cloninger, C. R., Reich, T., & Guze, S. B. (1975). The multifactorial model of disease transmission: III. Familial relationship between sociopathy and hysteria (Briquet's syndrome). British Journal of Psychiatry, 127, 23–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cloninger, C. R., Von Knorring, A. L., Sigvardsson, S., & Bohman, M. (1986). Symptom patterns and causes of somatization in men: II. Genetic and environmental independence from somatization in women. Genetic Epidemiology, 3, 171–185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, P., Velez, N., Kohn, M., Schwab-Stone, M., & Johnson, J. (1987). Child psychiatric diagnosis by computer algorithm: Theoretical issues and empirical tests. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 631–638.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crowe, R. C. (1974). An adoption study of antisocial personality disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 31, 785–791.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dabbs, J. M., Ruback, R. B., Frady, R. L., Hopper, C. H., & Sgoutas, D. S. (1988). Saliva testosterone and criminal violence among women. Personality and Individual Differences, 9, 269–275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
D'Alessandro, B., Gasbarro, R., Montano, A., & Bellastella, A. (1972). Osservazioni sulla funzione androgena surreno-ovarica in donne in cattivita (1). Quanderni di Criminologia Clinica, 14, 329–338.Google Scholar
Esser, G., Schmidt, M. H., & Woerner, W. (1990). Epidemiology and course of psychiatric disorders in school-age children: Results of a longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31, 243–263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., Keenan, K., & Tsuang, M. T. (1991). A family-genetic study of girls with DSM-III attention deficit disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 112–117.Google ScholarPubMed
Feighner, J. P., Robins, E., Guze, S. B., Woodruff, R. A. Jr., Winokur, G., & Munoz, R. (1972). Diagnostic criteria for use in psychiatric research. Archives of General Psychiatry, 26, 57–63.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Christ, M. A. G., & Hanson, K. (1992). Familial risk factors to oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder: Parental psychopathology and maternal parenting. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 49–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodwin, D. W., & Guze, S. B. (1989). Hysteria (somatization disorder). In Goodwin, D. W. & Guze, S. B. (Eds.), Psychiatric diagnosis (4th ed., pp. 103–124). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Graham, P., & Rutter, M. (1973). Psychiatric disorder in the young adolescent: A follow-up study. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 66, 58–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kashani, J. H., Beck, N. C., Hoeper, E. W., Fallahi, C., Corcoran, C. M., McAllister, J. A., Rosenberg, T. K., & Reid, J. C. (1987). Psychiatric disorders in a community sample of adolescents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 584–589.Google Scholar
Leslie, S. A. (1974). Psychiatric disorder in the young adolescents of an industrial town. British Journal of Psychiatry, 125, 113–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, D. O., Yeager, C. A., Cobham-Portorreal, C. S., Klein, N., Showalter, C., & Anthony, A. (1991). A follow-up of female delinquents: Maternal contributions to the perpetuation of deviance. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 197–201.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Livingston, R., & Martin-Cannici, C. (1985). Multiple somatic complaints and possible somatization disorder in prepubertal children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 24, 603–607.Google ScholarPubMed
Livingston, R., Taylor, J. L., & Crawford, S. L. (1988). A study of somatic complaints and psychiatric diagnosis in children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 185–187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lyons, J., Serbia, L. A., & Marchessault, K. (1988). The social behavior of peer-identified aggressive, withdrawn, and aggressive/withdrawn children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 539–552.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maccoby, E. E. (1986). Social groupings in childhood: Their relationship to prosocial and antisocial behavior in boys and girls. In Olweus, D., Block, J., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (Eds.), Development of antisocial and prosocial behavior (pp. 263–284). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C. N. (1980). Sex differences in aggression: A rejoinder and reprise. Child Development, 51, 964–980.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maccoby, E. E., & Martin, J. A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In Hetherington, E. M. (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 4) (pp. 1–101). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
McCord, J. (1986). Instigation and insulation: How families affect antisocial aggression. In Olweus, D., Block, J., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (Eds.), Development of antisocial and prosocial behavior (pp. 343–357). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.Google Scholar
McGee, R., Feehan, M., Williams, S., & Anderson, J. (1992). DSM-III disorders from age 11 to age 15 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 50–59.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGee, R., Feehan, M., Williams, S., Partridge, F., Silva, P. A., & Kelly, J. (1990). DSM-III disorders in a large sample of adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 611–619.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1988). Self-reported delinquency, neuropsychological deficit, and history of attention deficit disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 553–569.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moskowitz, D. S., & Schwartzman, A. E. (1989). Life paths of aggressive and withdrawn children. In Cantor, N. & Buss, D. (Eds.), Emerging trends in personality. New York: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
Moskowitz, D. S., Schwartzman, A. E., & Ledingham, J. E. (1985). Stability and change in aggression and withdrawal in middle childhood and adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94, 30–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Offord, D. R., Boyle, M. H., Szatmari, P., Raegrant, N. I., Links, P. S., Cadman, D. T., Byles, J. A., Crawford, J. W., Blum, H. M., Byrne, C., Thomas, H., & Woodward, C. A. (1987). Ontario Child Health Study. II. Six-month prevalence of disorder and rates of service utilization. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 832–836.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olweus, D. (1981). Continuity in aggressive and withdrawn, inhibited behavior patterns. Psychiatry and Social Science, 1, 141–159.Google Scholar
Olweus, D. (1986). Aggression and hormones: Behavioral relationship with testosterone and adrenaline. In Olweus, D., Block, J., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (Eds.), Development of antisocial and prosocial behavior (pp. 51–72) Orlando, FL: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family processes. Eugene, OR: Castalia Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Persky, H. (1974). Reproductive hormones, moods, and the menstrual cycle. In Friedman, R. C., Richart, R. M., & Vande Wiele, R. L. (Eds.), Sex differences in behavior (pp. 455–466). New York: John Wiley.Google Scholar
Persky, H., Dreisbach, L., Miller, W. R., O'Brien, C. P., Khan, M. A., Lief, H. I., Charney, N., & Strauss, D. (1982). The relation of plasma androgen levels to sexual behaviors and attitudes of women. Psychosomatic Medicine, 44, 305–318.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Persky, H., Smith, K. D., & Basu, G. K. (1971). Relation of psychologic measures of aggression and hostility to testosterone production in man. Psychosomatic Medicine, 33, 265–277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quinton, D., Rutter, M., & Gulliver, L. (1990). Continuities in psychiatric disorders from childhood to adulthood in the children of psychiatric patients. In Robins, L. N. & Rutter, M. (Eds.), Straight and deviant pathways from childhood to adulthood (pp. 259–278). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Robins, L. N. (1966). Deviant children grown up. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.Google Scholar
Robins, L. N. (1986). The consequences of conduct disorder in girls. In Olweus, D., Block, J., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (Eds.), Development of antisocial and prosocial behavior (pp. 385–414). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Robins, L. N. (1990). Conduct disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 193–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robins, L. N., & Price, R. K. (1991). Adult disorders predicted by childhood conduct problems: Results from the NIMH Epidemiologic Catchment Area project. Psychiatry, 54, 113–132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Robins, L. N., Tipp, J., & Pryzbeck, T. (1991). Antisocial personality. In Robins, L. N. & Regier, D. A. (Eds.), Psychiatric disorders in America (pp. 258–290). New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Robins, L. N., West, P. A., & Herjanic, B. (1975). Arrests and delinquency in two generations: A study of black urban families and their children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 16, 125–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M., & Giller, H. (1983). Juvenile delinquency. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., & Gould, M. (1985). Chapter 18. Classification. In Rutter, M. & Hersov, L. (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychiatry (2nd ed., pp. 304–321). Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., Quinton, D., & Hill, J. (1990). Adult outcome of institution-reared children: Males and females compared. In Robins, L. N. & Rutter, M. (Eds.), Straight and deviant pathways from childhood to adulthood (pp. 135–157). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Rutter, M., Tizard, J., & Whitmore, K. (1970). Education, health, and behaviour. London: Longmans. (Reprinted by Krieger, R. E. Publishing Co., Huntington, NY, 1981)Google Scholar
Spitzer, R. L., Davies, M., & Barkley, R. A. (1990). The DSM-III-R field trial of disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 690–697.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Susman, E. J., Inoff-Germain, G., Nottelman, E. D., Loriaux, D. L., Cutler, B. G. Jr., & Chrousos, G. P. (1987). Hormones, emotional dispositions, and aggressive attributes in young adolescents. Child Development, 58, 1114–1134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Swartz, M., Landerman, R., George, L. K., Blazer, D. G., & Escobar, J. (1991). Somatization disorder. In Robins, L. N. & Regier, D. A. (Eds.), Psychiatric disorders in America (pp. 53–80). New York: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Tremblay, R. E., Leblanc, M., & Schwartzman, A. E. (1988). The predictive power of first-grade peer and teacher ratings of behavior: Sex differences in antisocial behavior and personality at adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychiatry, 16, 571–583.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Williams, J. B. W., & Spitzer, R. L. (1982). Research diagnostic criteria and DSM-III. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39, 1283–1289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolfgang, M. E., Thornberry, T. P., & Figlio, R. M. (1987). From boy to man, from delinquency to crime. Chicago: University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Zoccolillo, M. (1992). Co-occurrence of conduct disorder and its adult outcomes with depressive and anxiety disorders: A review. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 547–556.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zoccolillo, M., Pickles, A., Quinton, D., & Rutter, M. (1992). The outcome of childhood conduct disorder: Implications for defining adult personality disorder and conduct disorder. Psychological Medicine, 22, 971–986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zoccolillo, M., & Rogers, K. (1991). Characteristics and outcome of hospitalized adolescent girls with conduct disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 973–981.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed