Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-hc48f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T08:40:44.706Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The influence of prenatal intimate partner violence exposure on hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis reactivity and childhood internalizing and externalizing symptoms

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 April 2015

Cecilia Martinez-Torteya ,
G. Anne Bogat ,
Alytia A. Levendosky  and
Alexander von Eye
Cecilia Martinez-Torteya*
Affiliation:
DePaul University
G. Anne Bogat
Affiliation:
Michigan State University
Alytia A. Levendosky
Affiliation:
Michigan State University
Alexander von Eye
Affiliation:
Michigan State University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Cecilia Martinez-Torteya, Department of Psychology, DePaul University, 2219 Kenmore Avenue, Chicago, IL 60614; E-mail: cmart121@depaul.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This prospective longitudinal study examines the long-term influence of intimate partner violence (IPV) exposure in utero. We hypothesized that (a) prenatal IPV increases risk for internalizing and externalizing problems as well as for a profile of dysregulated cortisol reactivity, and (b) patterns of cortisol hyper- and hyporeactivity are differentially associated with internalizing and externalizing problems. The participants were 119 10-year-old children. Their mothers reported their IPV experiences and distress during pregnancy. Child and maternal reports of internalizing and externalizing problems as well as lifetime IPV exposure were obtained. Salivary cortisol was assessed at baseline, 20 min, and 40 min after challenge. The results partially supported our hypotheses: Exposure to IPV during pregnancy predicted child-reported internalizing and externalizing problems, mother ratings of child externalizing problems, and a profile of high cortisol secretion before and after stress challenge. The results were significant above and beyond the influence of maternal distress during pregnancy and IPV that occurred during the child's life. In addition, a profile of high cortisol secretion was associated with maternal reports of child internalizing behaviors. Findings support the growing consensus that prenatal stress can lead to lasting disruptions in adaptation and highlight the need for more longitudinal examinations of prenatal IPV exposure.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 28 , Issue 1 , February 2016 , pp. 55 - 72
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for ASEBA school-age forms & profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families.Google Scholar
Adam, E. K., Klimes-Dougan, B., & Gunnar, M. R. (2007). Social regulation of the adrenocortical response to stress in infants, children, and adolescents. In Coch, D., Dawson, G., & Fischer, K. W. (Eds.), Human behavior, learning, and the developing brain: Atypical development (pp. 264–304). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Alink, L. R. A., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Mesman, J., Juffer, F., & Koot, H. (2008). Cortisol and externalizing behavior in children and adolescents: Mixed meta-analytic evidence for the inverse relation of basal cortisol and cortisol reactivity with externalizing behavior. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 427–450. doi:10.1002/dev.20300 Google Scholar
Allwood, M. A., Handwerger, K., Kivlighan, K. T., Granger, D. A., & Stroud, L. R. (2011). Direct and moderating links of salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol stress-reactivity to youth behavioral and emotional adjustment. Biological Psychology, 88, 57–64. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.06.008 Google Scholar
Asparouhov, T., & Muthén, B. (2014). Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Three-step approaches using Mplus. Structural Equation Modeling, 21, 329–341. doi:10.1080/10705511.2014.915181.Google Scholar
Austin, M. P., Hadzi-Pavlovic, D., Leader, L., Saint, K., & Parker, G. (2005). Maternal trait anxiety, depression and life event stress in pregnancy: Relationships with infant temperament. Early Human Development, 81, 183–190. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2004.07.001 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barker, D. J., Eriksson, J. G., Forsen, T., & Osmond, C. (2002). Fetal origins of adult disease: Strength of effects and biological basis. International Journal of Epidemiology, 31, 1235–1239. doi:10.1093/ije/31.6.1235 Google Scholar
Beck, A. T., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561–571. doi:10.1001/archpsyc. 1961.01710120031004.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Garbin, M. G. (1988). Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review, 8, 77–100. doi:10.1016/0272-7358(88)90050-5 Google Scholar
Bentler, P. M., & Chou, C. P. (1987). Practical issues in structural modeling. Sociological Methods & Research, 16, 78–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergman, K., Sarkar, P., O'Connor, T. G., Modi, N., & Glover, V. (2007). Maternal stress during pregnancy predicts cognitive ability and fearfulness in infancy. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 46, 1454–1463. doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e31814a62f6 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bergman, L. R., & Magnusson, D. (1997). A person-oriented approach in research on developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 291–319. doi:10.1017/S095457949700206X Google Scholar
Bogat, G. A., DeJonghe, E., Levendosky, A. A., Davidson, W. S., & von Eye, A. (2006). Trauma symptoms among infants exposed to intimate partner violence. Child Abuse and Neglect, 30, 109–125. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2005.09.002 Google Scholar
Bogat, G. A., von Eye, A., & Bergman, L. R. (in press). Person-oriented approaches. In Cicchetti, D. (Ed.), Developmental psychopathology (Vol. 1, 3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Bouma, E., Riese, H., Ormel, J., Verhulst, F. C., & Oldehinkel, A. J. (2009). Adolescents' cortisol responses to awakening and social stress; Effects of gender, menstrual phase and oral contraceptives. The TRAILS study. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 884–893. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.01.003.Google Scholar
Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Carter, A. S., & Schwab-Stone, M. (1996). Discrepancies among mother, child, and teacher reports: Examining the contributions of maternal depression and anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 749–765. doi:10.1007/ BF01664738 Google Scholar
Brownridge, D. A., Taillieu, T. L., Tyler, K. A., Tiwari, A., Chan, K., & Santos, S. C. (2011). Pregnancy and intimate partner violence: Risk factors, severity, and health effects. Violence Against Women, 17, 858–881. doi:10.1177/1077801211412547.Google Scholar
Burke, J. G., Lee, L. C., & O'Campo, P. (2008). An exploration of maternal intimate partner violence experiences and infant general health and temperament. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 12, 172–179.Google Scholar
Buske-Kirschbaum, A., Jobst, S., Wustman, A., Kirschbaum, C., Rauh, W., & Hellhammer, D. (1997) Attenuated free cortisol response to psychosocial stress in children with atopic dermatitis. Psychosomatic Medicine, 59, 419–426.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2001). The impact of child maltreatment and psychopathology on neuroendocrine functioning. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 783–804.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J. A., Perel, J. M., DeBellis, M. D., Friedman, M. J., & Putnam, F. (2002). Treating traumatized children: Clinical implications of the psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder. Trauma, Violence and Abuse, 3, 91–108. doi:10.1177/15248380020032001 Google Scholar
Coker, A. L., Sanderson, M., & Dong, B. (2004). Partner violence during pregnancy and risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. Pediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology, 18, 260–269. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3016.2004.00569.x Google Scholar
Crawford, A., & Benoit, D. (2009). Caregivers' disrupted representations of the unborn child predict later infant-caregiver disorganized attachment and disrupted interactions. Infant Mental Health Journal, 30, 124–144. doi:10.1002/imhj.20207 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cushing, B. S., & Kramer, K. M. (2005). Mechanisms underlying epigenetic effects of early social experience: The role of neuropeptides and steroids. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 29, 1089–1105. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.04.001 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davis, E., & Sandman, C. A. (2012). Prenatal psychobiological predictors of anxiety risk in preadolescent children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37, 1224–1233. doi:10.1016/ j.psyneuen.2011.12.016 Google Scholar
Dayton, C. J., Levendosky, A. A., Davidson, W. S., & Bogat, G. A. (2010). The child as held in the mind of the mother: The influence of prenatal maternal representations on parenting behaviors. Infant Mental Health Journal, 31, 220–241. doi:10.1002/imhj.20253 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeJonghe, E. S., Bogat, G. A., Levendosky, A. A., von Eye, A., & Davidson, W. S. II. (2005). Infant exposure to domestic violence predicts heightened sensitivity to adult verbal conflict. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26, 268–281. doi:10.1002/imhj.20048 Google Scholar
Derogatis, L. R., & Melisaratos, N. (1983). The Brief Symptom Inventory: An introductory report. Psychological Medicine, 13, 595–605. doi:10.1017/S0033291700048017 Google Scholar
de Weerth, C., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2005). Physiological stress reactivity in human pregnancy: A review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 29, 295–312. doi:10.1016/ j.neubiorev.2004.10.005 Google Scholar
Dickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 355–391. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.355 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Essex, M. J., Klein, M. H., Cho, E., & Kalin, N. H. (2002). Maternal stress beginning in infancy may sensitize children to later stress exposure: Effects on cortisol and behavior. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 776–784. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(02)01553-6 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Entringer, S., Epel, E. S., Kumsta, R., Lin, J., Hellhammer, D. H., Blackburn, E. H., et al. (2011). Stress exposure in intrauterine life is associated with shorter telomere length in young adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, E513–E518. doi:10.1073/pnas.1107759108 Google Scholar
Entringer, S., Epel, E. S., Lin, J., Buss, C., Shahbaba, B., Blackburn, E. H., et al. (2013). Maternal psychosocial stress during pregnancy is associated with newborn leukocyte telomere length. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 208, 134.e1–134.e7. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2012.11.033 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ford, T., Goodman, R., & Meltzer, H. (2003). The British Child and Adolescent Mental Health Survey 1999: The prevalence of DSM-IV disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 1203–1211. doi:10.1097/ 00004583-200310000-00011 Google Scholar
Gazmararian, J. A., Lazorick, S., Spitz, A. M., Ballard, T. J., Saltzman, L. E., Marks, J. S., et al. (1996). Prevalence of violence against pregnant women. Journal of the American Medical Association, 275, 1915–1920. doi:10.1001/jama.1996.03530480057041 Google Scholar
Gibson, W. A. (1959). Three multivariate models: Factor analysis, latent structure analysis and latent profile analysis. Psychometrika, 24, 229–252. doi:10.1007/BF02289845 Google Scholar
Glover, V., O'Connor, T. G., & O'Donnell, K. (2010). Prenatal stress and the programming of the HPA axis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 17–22. doi:10.1016/ j.neubiorev.2009.11.008 Google Scholar
Goodyer, I. M. (2008). Emanuel Miller Lecture: Early onset depressions: Meanings, mechanisms and processes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 1239–1256. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01964.x Google Scholar
Gordis, E. B., Granger, D. A., Susman, E. J., & Trickett, P. K. (2006). Asymmetry between salivary cortisol and α-amylase reactivity to stress: Relation to aggressive behavior in adolescents. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31, 976–987. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2006.05.010 Google Scholar
Graham-Bermann, S. A., Gruber, G., Howell, K. H., & Girz, L. (2009). Factors discriminating among profiles of resilient coping and psychopathology in children exposed to domestic violence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 33, 648–660. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.01.002 Google Scholar
Graham-Bermann, S. A., & Miller, L. E. (2013). Intervention to reduce traumatic stress following intimate partner violence: An efficacy trial of the Moms' Empowerment Program (MEP). Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 41, 329–349. doi:10.1521/pdps. 2013.41.2.329 Google Scholar
Granger, D. A., Hibel, L. C., Fortunato, C. K., & Kapelewski, C. H. (2009). Medication effects on salivary cortisol: Mechanisms of action, a “watch list,” and tactics to minimize impact in biobehavioral research. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 1437–48. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.06.017 Google Scholar
Granger, D. A., Weisz, J. R., McCracken, J. T., Ikeda, S. C., & Douglas, P. (1996). Reciprocal influences among adrenocortical activation, psychosocial processes, and the behavioral adjustment of clinic-referred children. Child Development, 67, 3250–3262. doi:10.2307/1131777 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grych, J. H., Jouriles, E. N., Swank, P. R., McDonald, R., & Norwood, W. D. (2000). Patterns of adjustment among children of battered women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 84.Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Frenn, K., Wewerka, S. S., & Van Ryzin, M. J. (2009). Moderate versus severe early life stress: Associations with stress reactivity and regulation in 10-12-year-old children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 62–75. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.08.013 Google Scholar
Gutteling, B. M., de Weerth, C., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2005). Prenatal stress and children's cortisol reaction to the first day of school. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30, 541–549. doi:1874/116710 Google Scholar
Hankin, B. L., Badanes, L. S., Abuela, , & Watamura, S. E. (2010). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation in dysphoric children and adolescents: Cortisol reactivity to psychosocial stress from preschool through middle adolescence. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 484–490. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.04.004 Google Scholar
Hatzinger, M., Brand, S., Perren, S., von Wyl, A., von Klitzing, K., & Holsboer-Trachsler, E. (2007). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) activity in kindergarten children: Importance of gender and associations with behavioral/emotional difficulties. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 41, 861–870. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2006.07.012 Google Scholar
Heim, C., Newport, D. J., Mletzko, T., Miller, A. H., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2008). The link between childhood trauma and depression: Insights from HPA axis studies in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 33, 693–710. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.03.008 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hibel, L. C., Granger, D. A., Blair, C., & Cox, M. J. (2011). Maternal sensitivity buffers the adrenocortical implications of intimate partner violence exposure during early childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 689–701. doi:10.1017/ S0954579411000010 Google Scholar
Huizink, A. C., Bartels, M., Rose, R. J., Pulkkinen, L., Eriksson, C. J. P., & Kaprio, J. (2008). Chernobyl exposure as stressor during pregnancy and hormone levels in adolescent offspring. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 62, 1–6. doi:10.1136/ jech.2007.060350 Google Scholar
Huizink, A. C., de Medina, P. G. R., Mulder, E. J. H., Visser, G. H. A., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2002). Psychological measures of prenatal stress as predictors of infant temperament. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 1078–1085. doi:10.1097/00004583-200209000-00008 Google Scholar
Huizink, A. C., Mulder, E. J., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2004). Prenatal stress and risk for psychopathology early or later in life: Specific effects or induction of general susceptibility? Psychological Bulletin, 130, 115–142. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.1.115 Google Scholar
Huth-Bocks, A. C., Levendosky, A. A., & Bogat, G. A. (2002). The effects of domestic violence during pregnancy on maternal and infant health. Violence and Victims, 17, 169–185. doi:10.1891/vivi.17.2.169.33647 Google Scholar
Huth-Bocks, A. C., Levendosky, A. A., & Semel, M. A. (2001). The direct and indirect effects of domestic violence on young children's intellectual functioning. Journal of Family Violence, 16, 269–290. doi:10.1023/A:1011138332712 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inslicht, S. S., Marmar, C. R., Neylan, T. C., Metzler, T. J., Hart, S. L., Otte, C., et al. (2006). Increased cortisol in women with intimate partner violence-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31, 825–838. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2006.03.007 Google Scholar
Jansen, L. M., Gispen-de Wied, C. C., & Kahn, R. S. (2000). Selective impairments in the stress response in schizophrenic patients. Psychopharmacology, 149, 319–325.Google Scholar
Johnson, D. M., Delahanty, D. L., & Pinna, K. (2008). The cortisol awakening response as a function of PTSD severity and abuse chronicity in sheltered battered women. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 793–800. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.08.006 Google Scholar
Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Rao, U., & Ryan, N. (1996), Kiddie-SADS-Present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine.Google Scholar
Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Perel, J., Dahl, R. E., Moreci, P., Nelson, B., et al. (1997). The corticotropin-releasing hormone challenge in depressed abused, depressed nonabused, and normal control children. Biological Psychiatry, 42, 669–679. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(96)00470-2 Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., & Myers, J. J. (2010). The genetic and environmental relationship between major depression and the five-factor model of personality. Psychological Medicine, 40, 801–806. doi:10.1017/S0033291709991140 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klimes-Dougan, B., Hastings, P. D., Granger, D. A., Usher, B. A., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2001). Adrenocortical activity in at-risk and normally developing adolescents: Individual differences in salivary cortisol basal levels, diurnal variation, and responses to social challenges. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 695–719.Google Scholar
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kolko, D. J., & Kazdin, A. E. (1993). Emotional/behavioral problems in clinic and nonclinic children: Correspondence among child, parent and teacher reports. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 991–1006.Google Scholar
Kovacs, M. (1992). Children's Depression Inventory manual. New York: Multi-Health Systems.Google Scholar
Krämer, M., Seefeldt, W. L., Heinrichs, N., Tuschen-Caffier, B., Schmitz, J., Wolf, O. T., et al. (2012). Subjective, autonomic, and endocrine reactivity during social stress in children with social phobia. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 95–104. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9548-9 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kudielka, B. M., Buske-Kirschbaum, A., Hellhammer, D. H., & Kirschbaum, C. (2004). HPA axis responses to laboratory psychosocial stress in healthy elderly adults, younger adults, and children: Impact of age and gender. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 29, 83–98. doi:10.1016/S0306-4530(02)00146-4 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lazarsfeld, P. F., & Henry, N. W. (1968). Latent structure analysis. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin.Google Scholar
Lester, B. M., LaGasse, L. L., Shankaran, S., Bada, H. S., Bauer, C. R., Lin, R., et al. (2010). Prenatal cocaine exposure related to cortisol stress reactivity in 11-year-old children. Journal of Pediatrics, 157, 288–295. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2010.02.039 Google Scholar
Levendosky, A. A., Bogat, G. A., & Martinez-Torteya, C. (2013). PTSD symptoms in young children exposed to intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 19, 187–201. doi:10.1177/1077801213476458 Google Scholar
Levendosky, A. A., Leahy, K. L., Bogat, G. A., Davidson, W. S., & von Eye, A. (2006). Domestic violence, maternal parenting, maternal mental health, and infant externalizing behavior. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 544–552. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.20.4.544 Google Scholar
Lopez-Duran, N. L., Kovacs, M., & George, C. (2009). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation in depressed children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 1272–1283. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.03.016 Google Scholar
Luby, J. L., Heffelfinger, A., Mrakotsky, C., Brown, K., Hessler, M., & Spitznagel, E. (2003). Alterations in stress cortisol reactivity in depressed preschoolers relative to psychiatric and no-disorder comparison groups. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 1248–1255. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.60.12.1248 Google Scholar
Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 434–445. doi:10.1038/nrn2639 Google Scholar
MacMillan, H. L., Georgiades, K., Duku, E. K., Shea, A., Steiner, M., Niec, A., et al. (2009). Cortisol response to stress in female youths exposed to childhood maltreatment: Results of the youth mood project. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 62–68. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.12.014 Google Scholar
March, J. S., & Albano, A. M. (1998). New developments in assessing pediatric anxiety disorders. In Ollendick, T. H. & Prinz, R. J. (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (pp. 213–241). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Marshall, L. L. (1992). Development of the Severity of Violence Against Women Scales. Journal of Family Violence, 7, 103–121. doi:10.1007/BF00978700 Google Scholar
Martel, F. L., Hayward, C., Lyons, D. M., Sanborn, K., Varady, S., & Schatzberg, A. F. (1999). Salivery cortisol levels in socially phobic adolescent girls. Depression and Anxiety, 10, 25–27.Google Scholar
Martin, R. P., Noyes, J., Wisenbaker, J., & Huttunen, M. O. (1999). Prediction of early childhood negative emotionality and inhibition from maternal distress during pregnancy. Merrill–Palmer Quarterly Journal of Developmental Psychology, 45, 370–391.Google Scholar
Martinez-Torteya, C., Field, L., Bogat, G. A., Levendosky, A. A., Davidson, W. S., & von Eye, A. (2009). Prenatal exposure to domestic violence predicts infants' internalizing behaviors and temperamental difficulties. Poster session presented in the American Psychological Association 21st Annual Convention, San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
McBurnett, K., Raine, A., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., Kumar, A. M., Kumar, M., et al. (2005). Mood and hormone responses to psychological challenge in adolescent males with conduct problems. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1109–1116. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.041 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCrae, J. S., Chapman, M. V., & Christ, S. L. (2006). Profile of children investigated for sexual abuse: Association with psychopathology symptoms and services. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76, 468–481. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.76.4.468 Google Scholar
McEwen, B. S., & Stellar, E. (1993). Stress and the individual: Mechanisms leading to disease. Archives of Internal Medicine, 153, 2093–2101.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merikangas, K. R., He, J. P., Brody, D., Fisher, P. W., Bourdon, K., & Koretz, D. S. (2010). Prevalence and treatment of mental disorders among US children in the 2001–2004 NHANES. Pediatrics, 125, 75–81. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-2598 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mohler, E., Parzer, P., Brunner, R., Wiebel, A., & Resch, F. (2006). Emotional stress in pregnancy predicts human infant reactivity. Early Human Development, 82, 731–737. doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2006.02.010 Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2010). Mplus user's guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
O'Brien, M., Bahadur, M., Gee, C., Balto, K., & Erber, S. (1997). Child exposure to marital conflict and child coping responses as a predictor of child adjustment. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 21, 39–59. doi:10.1023/A:1021816225846 Google Scholar
O'Connor, T. G., Ben-Shlomo, Y., Heron, J., Golding, J., Adams, D., & Glover, V. (2005). Prenatal anxiety predicts individual differences in cortisol in pre-adolescent children. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 211–217. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.03.032 Google Scholar
O'Donnell, K., O'Connor, T. G., & Glover, V. (2009). Prenatal stress and neurodevelopment of the child: Focus on the HPA axis and role of the placenta. Developmental Neuroscience, 31, 285–292. doi:10.1159/000216539 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pesonen, A. K., Kajantie, E., Heinonen, K., Pyhälä, R., Lahti, J., Jones, A., et al. (2012). Sex-specific associations between sleep problems and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis activity in children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37, 238–248. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2011.06.008 Google Scholar
Popma, A., Jansen, L., Vermeiren, R., Steiner, H., Raine, A., Van Goozen, S. H., et al. (2006). Hypothalamus pituitary adrenal axis and autonomic activity during stress in delinquent male adolescents and controls. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 31, 948–957. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2006.05.005 Google Scholar
Rao, U., Hammen, C., Ortiz, L. R., Chen, L., & Poland, R. E. (2008). Effects of early and recent adverse experiences on adrenal response to psychosocial stress in depressed adolescents. Biological Psychiatry, 64, 521–526. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008. 05.012 Google Scholar
Reynolds, C. R., & Kamphaus, R. W. (2002). A clinician's guide to the Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Ruttle, P. L., Shirtcliff, E. A., Serbin, L. A., Ben-Dat Fisher, D., Stack, D. M., & Schwartzman, A. E. (2011). Disentangling psychobiological mechanisms underlying internalizing and externalizing behaviors in youth: Longitudinal and concurrent associations with cortisol. Hormones and Behavior, 59, 123–132. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.10.015d Google Scholar
Saltzman, K. M., Holden, G. W., & Holahan, C. J. (2005). The psychobiology of children exposed to marital violence. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 129–139. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3401_12 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Saltzman, L. E. (1990). Battering during pregnancy: A role for physicians. Atlanta Medicine, 64, 45–49.Google Scholar
Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1994). Corrections to test statistics and standard errors in covariance structure analysis. In von Eye, A. & Clogg, C. C. (Eds.), Latent variables analysis: Applications for developmental research (pp. 399–419). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Schreiber, J. B., Nora, A., Stage, F. K., Barlow, E. A., & King, J. (2006). Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review. Journal of Educational Research, 99, 323–338.Google Scholar
Schwartz, E. B., Granger, D. A., Susman, E. J., Gunnar, M. R., & Laird, B. (1998). Assessing salivary cortisol in studies of child development. Child Development, 69, 1503–13. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06173.x Google Scholar
Seedat, S., Stein, M. B., Kennedy, C. M., & Hauger, R. L. (2003). Plasma cortisol and neuropeptide Y in female victims of intimate partner violence. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28, 796–808. doi:10.1016/S0306-4530(02)00086-0 Google Scholar
Shirtcliff, E. A., Granger, D. A., Booth, A., & Johnson, D. (2005). Low salivary cortisol levels and externalizing behavior problems in youth. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 167–184. doi:10.1017/S0954579405050091 Google Scholar
Snoek, H., Van Goozen, S. H., Matthys, W., Buitelaar, J. K., & van Engeland, H. (2004). Stress responsivity in children with externalizing behavior disorders. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 389–406. doi:10.1017/S0954579404044578 Google Scholar
Spinrad, T. L., Eisenberg, N., Granger, D. A., Eggum, N. D., Sallquist, J., Haugen, R. G., et al. (2009). Individual differences in preschoolers' salivary cortisol and alpha-amylase reactivity: Relations to temperament and maladjustment. Hormones and Behavior, 56, 133–139. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.03.020 Google Scholar
Straus, M. A. (1979). Measuring intrafamily conflict and violence: The Conflict Tactics (CT) Scales. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 41, 75–88. doi:10.2307/351733 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sturge-Apple, M. L., Davies, P. T., Cicchetti, D., & Manning, L. G. (2012). Interparental violence, maternal emotional unavailability and children's cortisol functioning in family contexts. Developmental Psychology, 48, 237–249. doi:10.1037/a0025419 Google Scholar
Taillieu, T. L., & Brownridge, D. A. (2010). Violence against pregnant women: Prevalence, patterns, risk factors, theories, and directions for future research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15, 14–35. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2009.07.013 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Talge, N. M., Neal, C., & Glover, V. (2007). Antenatal maternal stress and long-term effects on child neurodevelopment: How and why? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 245–261. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01714.x Google Scholar
Trickett, P. K., Noll, J. G., Susman, E. J., Shenk, C. E., & Putnam, F. W. (2010). Attenuation of cortisol across development for victims of sexual abuse. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 165–175. doi:10.1017/S0954579409990332 Google Scholar
Van den Bergh, B. R. H., Van Calster, B., Smits, T., Van Huffel, S., & Lagae, L. (2008). Antenatal maternal anxiety is related to HPA-axis dysregulation and self-reported depressive symptoms in adolescence: A prospective study on the fetal origins of depressed moods. Neuropsychopharmacology, 33, 536–545. doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301540 Google Scholar
von Eye, A., & Bergman, L. R. (2003). Research strategies in developmental psychopathology: Dimensional identity and the person-oriented approach. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 553–580. doi:10.1017/S0954579403000294 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolfe, D. A., Crooks, C. V., Lee, V., McInthyre-Smith, A., & Jaffe, P. G. (2003). The effects of children's exposure to domestic violence: A meta-analysis and critique. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 171–187. doi:10.1023/A:1024910416164 Google Scholar
Young, E. A., Vazquez, D., Jiang, H., & Pfeffer, C. R. (2006). Saliva cortisol and response to dexamethasone in children of depressed parents. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 831–836. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.03.077b Google Scholar