Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-t5tsf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-13T01:16:01.923Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The interplay of birth weight, dopamine receptor D4 gene (DRD4), and early maternal care in the prediction of disorganized attachment at 36 months of age

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 October 2015

Ashley Wazana ,
Ellen Moss ,
Alexis Jolicoeur-Martineau ,
Justin Graffi ,
Gal Tsabari ,
Vanessa Lecompte ,
Katherine Pascuzzo ,
Vanessa Babineau ,
Cathryn Gordon-Green  and
Viara Mileva
...Show all authors
Ashley Wazana*
Affiliation:
McGill University, Montreal Jewish General Hospital, Montreal
Ellen Moss
Affiliation:
University of Quebec at Montreal
Alexis Jolicoeur-Martineau
Affiliation:
McGill University, Montreal
Justin Graffi
Affiliation:
McGill University, Montreal
Gal Tsabari
Affiliation:
Hebrew University
Vanessa Lecompte
Affiliation:
University of Quebec at Montreal
Katherine Pascuzzo
Affiliation:
McGill University, Montreal
Vanessa Babineau
Affiliation:
McGill University, Montreal
Cathryn Gordon-Green
Affiliation:
McGill University, Montreal
Viara Mileva
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Leslie Atkinson
Affiliation:
Ryerson University
Klaus Minde
Affiliation:
McGill University, Montreal
André Anne Bouvette-Turcot
Affiliation:
University of Montreal and CHU Sainte-Justine
Roberto Sassi
Affiliation:
McMaster University and St.-Joseph's Healthcare Hamilton
Martin St.-André
Affiliation:
University of Montreal and CHU Sainte-Justine
Normand Carrey
Affiliation:
Dalhousie University
Stephen Matthews
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Marla Sokolowski
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
John Lydon
Affiliation:
McGill University, Montreal
Helene Gaudreau
Affiliation:
Ludmer Centre for Neuroinformatics and Mental Health and Douglas Mental Health University Institute
Meir Steiner
Affiliation:
McMaster University and St.-Joseph's Healthcare Hamilton
James L. Kennedy
Affiliation:
University of Toronto Centre for Addiction and Mental Health
Alison Fleming
Affiliation:
University of Toronto
Robert Levitan
Affiliation:
University of Toronto Centre for Addiction and Mental Health
Michael J. Meaney
Affiliation:
McGill University, Montreal Ludmer Centre for Neuroinformatics and Mental Health and Douglas Mental Health University Institute
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Ashley Wazana, Centre for Child Development and Mental Health, Jewish General Hospital, 4335 Cote Sainte Catherine Road, Montreal, QC H3T 1E4, Canada; E-mail: ashley.wazana@mcgill.ca.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Disorganized attachment is an important early risk factor for socioemotional problems throughout childhood and into adulthood. Prevailing models of the etiology of disorganized attachment emphasize the role of highly dysfunctional parenting, to the exclusion of complex models examining the interplay of child and parental factors. Decades of research have established that extreme child birth weight may have long-term effects on developmental processes. These effects are typically negative, but this is not always the case. Recent studies have also identified the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) as a moderator of childrearing effects on the development of disorganized attachment. However, there are inconsistent findings concerning which variant of the polymorphism (seven-repeat long-form allele or non–seven-repeat short-form allele) is most likely to interact with caregiving in predicting disorganized versus organized attachment. In this study, we examined possible two- and three-way interactions and child DRD4 polymorphisms and birth weight and maternal caregiving at age 6 months in longitudinally predicting attachment disorganization at 36 months. Our sample is from the Maternal Adversity, Vulnerability and Neurodevelopment project, a sample of 650 mother–child dyads. Birth weight was cross-referenced with normative data to calculate birth weight percentile. Infant DRD4 was obtained with buccal swabs and categorized according to the presence of the putative allele seven repeat. Macroanalytic and microanalytic measures of maternal behavior were extracted from a videotaped session of 20 min of nonfeeding interaction followed by a 10-min divided attention maternal task at 6 months. Attachment was assessed at 36 months using the Strange Situation procedure, and categorized into disorganized attachment and others. The results indicated that a main effect for DRD4 and a two-way interaction of birth weight and 6-month maternal attention (frequency of maternal looking away behavior) and sensitivity predicted disorganized attachment in robust logistic regression models adjusted for social demographic covariates. Specifically, children in the midrange of birth weight were more likely to develop a disorganized attachment when exposed to less attentive maternal care. However, the association reversed with extreme birth weight (low and high). The DRD4 seven-repeat allele was associated with less disorganized attachment (protective), while non–seven-repeat children were more likely to be classified as disorganized attachment. The implications for understanding inconsistencies in the literature about which DRD4 genotype is the risk direction are also considered. Suggestions for intervention with families with infants at different levels of biological risk and caregiving risk are also discussed.

Type
Special Section Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 27 , Issue 4pt1 , November 2015 , pp. 1145 - 1161
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aiken, L. S., West, S. G., & Reno, R. R. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Alati, R., Najman, J. M., O'Callaghan, M., Bor, W., Williams, G. M., & Clavarino, A. (2009). Fetal growth and behavior problems in early adolescence: Findings from the Mater University Study of Pregnancy. International Journal of Epidemiology, 38, 1390–1400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Armbruster, D., Mueller, A., Moser, D. A., Lesch, K. P., Brocke, B., & Kirschbaum, C. (2009). Interaction effect of D4 dopamine receptor gene and serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism on the cortisol stress response. Behavioral Neuroscience, 123, 1288–1295.Google Scholar
Arnsten, A. F. (1998). Catecholamine modulation of prefrontal cortical cognitive function. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2, 436–447.Google Scholar
Atkinson, L., Gonzalez, A., Kashy, D. A., Santo Basile, V., Masellis, M., Pereira, J., et al. (2013). Maternal sensitivity and infant and mother adrenocortical function across challenges. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 38, 2943–2951.Google Scholar
Atkinson, L., Leung, E., Goldberg, S., Benoit, D., Poulton, L., Myhal, N., et al. (2009). Attachment and selective attention: Disorganization and emotional Stroop reaction time. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 99–126.Google Scholar
Atkinson, L., Niccols, A., Paglia, A., Coolbear, J., H. Parker, K. C., Poulton, L., et al. (2000). A meta-analysis of time between maternal sensitivity and attachment assessments: Implications for internal working models in infancy/toddlerhood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 17, 791–810.Google Scholar
Atkinson, L., Paglia, A., Coolbear, J., Niccols, A., Poulton, L., Leung, E., et al. (2000). L’ évaluation de la sensibilité maternelle dans le contexte de la sécurité d'attachment: Une méta-analyse [Assessing maternal sensitivity in the context of attachment security: A meta-analysis]. In Tarabulsy, G. M., Larose, S., Pederson, D. R., & Moran, G. (Eds.), Attachement et développement: Le rôle des premieres relations dans le développement humain [Attachment and development: The role of first relationships in human development] (pp. 27–56). Québec: Presses de l'Université du Québec.Google Scholar
Atkinson, L., Scott, B., Chisholm, V., Blackwell, J., Dickens, S., Tam, F., et al. (1995). Cognitive coping, affective distress, and maternal sensitivity: Mothers of children with Down syndrome. Developmental Psychology, 31, 668–676.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Avinun, R., & Knafo, A. (in press). Socialization, genetics and their interplay in development. In Grusec, J. E. & Hastings, P. (Eds.), Handbook of socialization. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2004). No association of the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) and –521 C/T promoter polymorphisms with infant attachment disorganization. Attachment & Human Development, 6, 211–218, discussion 219–222.Google Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2006). Gene-environment interaction of the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) and observed maternal insensitivity predicting externalizing behavior in preschoolers. Developmental Psychobiology, 48, 406–409.Google Scholar
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2011). Differential susceptibility to rearing environment depending on dopamine-related genes: New evidence and a meta-analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 39–52.Google Scholar
Barker, D. J. (2004). The developmental origins of adult disease. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 23(Suppl.), 588S–595S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bayley, N. (1993). Bayley Scales of Infant Development: Administering and scoring manual. New York: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). The nature (and nurture?) of plasticity in early human development. Perspectives on Psychological Sciences, 4, 345–351.Google Scholar
Bretherton, I. (1980). Young children in stressful situations: The supporting role of attachment figures and unfamiliar caregivers. In Coelho, G. & Ahmed, P. (Eds.), Uprooting and development (pp. 179–210). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Brisch, K. H., Bechinger, D., Betzler, S., Heinemann, H., Kachele, H., Pohlandt, F., et al. (2005). Attachment quality in very low-birthweight premature infants in relation to maternal attachment representations and neurological development. Parenting, 5, 311–331.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broekman, B. F., Chan, Y. H., Goh, L., Fung, D., Gluckman, P. D., Saw, S. M., et al. (2011). Influence of birth weight on internalizing traits modulated by serotonergic genes. Pediatrics, 128, e1250–e1258.Google Scholar
Carlson, E. A. (1998). A prospective longitudinal study of attachment disorganization/disorientation. Child Development, 69, 1107–1128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cassidy, J., Marvin, R. S., & the MacArthur Attachment Working Group of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Network on the Transition from Infancy to Early Childhood. (1992). Attachment organization in preschool children: Procedures and coding manual. Unpublished manuscript, Pennsylvania State University.Google Scholar
Challis, J. R., Sloboda, D., Matthews, S. G., Holloway, A., Alfaidy, N., Patel, F. A., et al. (2001). The fetal placental hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, parturition and post natal health. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 185, 135–144.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (2006). Fostering secure attachment in infants in maltreating families through preventive interventions. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 623–649.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (2011). The effects of child maltreatment and polymorphisms of the serotonin transporter and dopamine D4 receptor genes on infant attachment and intervention efficacy. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 357–372.Google Scholar
Costello, E. J., Worthman, C., Erkanli, A., & Angold, A. (2007). Prediction from low birth weight to female adolescent depression: A test of competing hypotheses. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 338–344.Google Scholar
Davis, E. P., Glynn, L. M., Waffarn, F., & Sandman, C. A. (2011). Prenatal maternal stress programs infant stress regulation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 52, 119–129.Google Scholar
de Wolff, M. S., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, 68, 571–591.Google Scholar
Derryberry, D., & Rothbart, M. K. (1984). Emotion, attention, and temperament. In Izard, C., Kagan, J., & Zajonc, R. (Eds.), Emotion, cognition, and behavior (pp. 132–166). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Easterbrooks, M. A. (1989). Quality of attachment to mother and to father: Effects of perinatal risk status. Child Development, 60, 825–830.Google Scholar
Ebstein, R. P., Levine, J., Geller, V., Auerbach, J., Gritsenko, I., & Belmaker, R. H. (1998). Dopamine D4 receptor and serotonin transporter promoter in the determination of neonatal temperament. Molecular Psychiatry, 3, 238–246.Google Scholar
Ellis, B. J., & Boyce, W. T. (2008). Biological sensitivity to context. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 183–187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, G. W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. American Psychologist, 59, 77–92.Google Scholar
Feldman, R., & Eidelman, A. I. (2004). Parent-infant synchrony and the social-emotional development of triplets. Developmental Psychology, 40, 1133–1147.Google Scholar
Frodi, A. (1983). Attachment behavior and socialibility with strangers in premature and full-term infants. Infant Mental Health Journal, 4, 13–22.Google Scholar
Gervai, J., Nemoda, Z., Lakatos, K., Ronai, Z., Toth, I., Ney, K., et al. (2005). Transmission disequilibrium tests confirm the link between DRD4 gene polymorphism and infant attachment. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 132B, 126–130.Google Scholar
Gervai, J., Novak, A., Lakatos, K., Toth, I., Danis, I., Ronai, Z., et al. (2007). Infant genotype may moderate sensitivity to maternal affective communications: Attachment disorganization, quality of care, and the DRD4 polymorphism. Social Neuroscience, 2, 307–319.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giardino, J., Gonzalez, A., Steiner, M., & Fleming, A. S. (2008). Effects of motherhood on physiological and subjective responses to infant cries in teenage mothers: A comparison with non-mothers and adult mothers. Hormones and Behavior, 53, 149–158.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glaser, D. (2000). Child abuse and neglect and the brain—A review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 97–116.Google Scholar
Goldberg, S., Perrotta, M., Minde, K., & Corter, C. (1986). Maternal behavior and attachment in low-birth-weight twins and singletons. Child Development, 57, 34–46.Google Scholar
Gunnar, M., & Quevedo, K. (2007). The neurobiology of stress and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 145–173.Google Scholar
Hesse, E., & Main, M. (2006). Frightened, threatening, and dissociative parental behavior in low-risk samples: Description, discussion, and interpretations. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 309–343.Google Scholar
Hoaglin, D. C., & Welsch, R. E. (1978). The hat matrix in regression and anova. American Statistician, 32, 17–22.Google Scholar
Insel, T. R. (2003). Is social attachment an addictive disorder? Physiology & Behavior, 79, 351–357.Google Scholar
Jaffe, J., Beebe, B., Feldstein, S., Crown, C. L., & Jasnow, M. D. (2001). Rythms of dialogue in infancy. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 66, 1–132.Google Scholar
Juffer, F., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2008). Promoting positive parenting: An attachment-based intervention. New York: Taylor & Francis/Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Kidd, K. K., Morar, B., Castiglione, C. M., Zhao, H., Pakstis, A. J., Speed, W. C., et al. (1998). A global survey of haplotype frequencies and linkage disequilibrium at the DRD2 locus. Human Genetics, 103, 211–227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kramer, M. S., Lydon, J., Seguin, L., Goulet, L., Kahn, S. R., McNamara, H., et al. (2009). Stress pathways to spontaneous preterm birth: The role of stressors, psychological distress, and stress hormones. American Journal of Epidemiology, 169, 1319–1326.Google Scholar
Kramer, M. S., Platt, R. W., Wen, S. W., Joseph, K. S., Allen, A., Abrahamowicz, M., et al. (2001). A new and improved population-based Canadian reference for birth weight for gestational age. Pediatrics, 108, E35.Google Scholar
Krpan, K. M., Coombs, R., Zinga, D., Steiner, M., & Fleming, A. S. (2005). Experiential and hormonal correlates of maternal behavior in teen and adult mothers. Hormones and Behavior, 47, 112–122.Google Scholar
Lakatos, K., Nemoda, Z., Toth, I., Ronai, Z., Ney, K., Sasvari- Szekely, M., et al. (2002). Further evidence for the role of the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) gene in attachment disorganization: Interaction of the exon III 48-bp repeat and the -521 C/T promoter polymorphisms. Molecular Psychiatry, 7, 27–31.Google Scholar
Lakatos, K., Toth, I., Nemoda, Z., Ney, K., Sasvari-Szekely, M., & Gervai, J. (2000). Dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) gene polymorphism is associated with attachment disorganization in infants. Molecular Psychiatry, 5, 633–637.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laucht, M., Esser, G., & Schmidt, M. (2001). Differential development of infants at risk for psychopathology: The moderating role of early maternal responsivity. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 43, 292–300.Google Scholar
LeDoux, J. E. (2000). Emotion circuits in the brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 23, 155–184.Google Scholar
Luijk, M. P. C. M., Saridjan, N., Tharner, A., van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Jaddoe, V. W. V., et al. (2010). Attachment, depression, and cortisol: Deviant patterns in insecure–resistant and disorganized infants. Developmental Psychobiology, 52, 441–452.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., & Jacobvitz, D. (2008). Attachment disorganization: Genetic factors, parenting contexts, and developmental transformation from infancy to adulthood. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 666–697). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., Melnick, S., Bronfman, E., Sherry, S., & Llanas, L. (2004). Hostile–helpless relational models and disorganized attachment patterns between parents and their young children: Review of research and implications for clinical work. In Atkinson, L. & Goldberg, S. (Eds.), Attachment issues in psychopathology and intervention (pp. 65–94). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Maccari, S., Darnaudery, M., Morley-Fletcher, S., Zuena, A. R., Cinque, C., & Van Reeth, O. (2003). Prenatal stress and long-term consequences: Implications of glucocorticoid hormones. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 27, 119–127.Google Scholar
Maier, M. A., Bernier, A., Pekrun, R., Zimmermann, P., Strasser, K., & Grossmann, K. E. (2005). Attachment state of mind and perceptual processing of emotional stimuli. Attachment & Human Development, 7, 67–81.Google Scholar
Main, M. (1995). Recent studies in attachment: Overview, with selected implications for clinical work. In Goldberg, S., Muir, R., & Kerr, J. (Eds.), Attachment theory: Social, developmental, and clinical perspectives (pp. 407–474). Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press.Google Scholar
Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1986). Discovery of an insecure-disorganized/disoriented attachment pattern. In Brazelton, T. B. & Yogman, M. (Eds.), Affective development in infancy (pp. 95–124). Westport, CT: Ablex.Google Scholar
Main, M., & Solomon, J. (1990). Procedures for identifying infants as disorganized/disoriented during the Ainsworth Strange Situation. In Greenberg, M. T., Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, E. M. (Eds.), Attachment in the preschool years: Theory, research, and intervention (pp. 121–160). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Mangelsdorf, S. C., Plunkett, J. W., Dedrick, C. F., Berlin, M., Meisels, S. J., McHale, J. L., et al. (1996). Attachment security in very low birth weight infants. Developmental Psychology, 32, 914–920.Google Scholar
Meaney, M. J., Szyf, M., & Seckl, J. R. (2007). Epigenetic mechanisms of perinatal programming of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function and health. Trends in Molecular Medicine, 13, 269–277.Google Scholar
Mileva-Seitz, V., Fleming, A. S., Meaney, M. J., Mastroianni, A., Sinnwell, J. P., Steiner, M., et al. (2012). Dopamine receptors D1 and D2 are related to observed maternal behavior. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 11, 684–694.Google Scholar
Mileva-Seitz, V., Kennedy, J., Atkinson, L., Steiner, M., Levitan, R., Matthews, S. G., et al. (2011). Serotonin transporter allelic variation in mothers predicts maternal sensitivity, behavior and attitudes toward 6-month-old infants. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 10, 325–333.Google Scholar
Mileva-Seitz, V., Steiner, M., Atkinson, L., Meaney, M. J., Levitan, R., Kennedy, J. L., et al. (2013). Interaction between oxytocin genotypes and early experience predicts quality of mothering and postpartum mood. PLOS ONE, 8, e61443.Google Scholar
Moran, G., Forbes, L., Evans, E., Tarabulsy, G., & Madigan, S. (2008). Both maternal sensitivity and atypical maternal behavior independently predict attachment security and disorganization in adolescent mother-infant dyads. Paper presented at the the International Conference on Infant Studies.Google Scholar
Moss, E., Bureau, J. F., Cyr, C., Mongeau, C., & St.-Laurent, D. (2004). Correlates of attachment at age 3: Construct validity of the preschool attachment classification system. Developmental Psychology, 40, 323–334.Google Scholar
Moss, E., Cyr, C., & Dubois-Comtois, K. (2004). Attachment at early school age and developmental risk: Examining family contexts and behavior problems of controlling-caregiving, controlling-punitive, and behaviorally disorganized children. Developmental Psychology, 40, 519–532.Google Scholar
Moss, E., Dubois-Comtois, K., Cyr, C., Tarabulsy, G. M., St.-Laurent, D., & Bernier, A. (2011). Efficacy of a home-visiting intervention aimed at improving maternal sensitivity, child attachment, and behavioral outcomes for maltreated children: A randomized control trial. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 195–210.Google Scholar
Moss, E., & St.-Laurent, D. (2001). Attachment at school age and academic performance. Developmental Psychology, 37, 863–874.Google Scholar
Moss, E., St.-Laurent, D., Dubois-Comtois, K., & Cyr, C. (2005). Quality of attachment at school age. In Kerns, K. A. & Richardson, R. A. (Eds.), Attachment in middle childhood (pp. 189–211). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Moss, E., St.-Laurent, D., Tarabulsy, G. M., & Bureau, J.-F. (2011). Understanding disorganized attachment at preschool and school age: Examining divergent pathways of disorganized and controlling children. In Solomon, J. & George, C. (Eds.), Disorganized attachment and caregiving (pp. 52–79). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Moss, E., Tarabulsy, G. M., St.-Georges, R., Dubois-Comtois, K., Cyr, C., Bernier, A., et al. (2014). Videofeedback intervention with maltreating parent–child dyads. Attachment & Human Development, 16, 329–342.Google Scholar
Munafo, M. R., Yalcin, B., Willis-Owen, S. A., & Flint, J. (2008). Association of the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) gene and approach-related personality traits: Meta-analysis and new data. Biological Psychiatry, 63, 197–206.Google Scholar
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (2001). Child care and family predictors of preschool attachment and stability from infancy. Developmental Psychology, 37, 847–862.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nomura, Y., & Chemtob, C. M. (2007). Conjoined effects of low birth weight and childhood abuse on adaptation and well-being in adolescence and adulthood. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161, 186–192.Google Scholar
Oades, R. D. (1985). The role of noradrenaline in tuning and dopamine in switching between signals in the CNS. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 9, 261–282.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
O'Donnell, K. A., Gaudreau, H., Colalillo, S., Steiner, M., Atkinson, L., Moss, E., et al. (2014). The maternal adversity, vulnerability and neurodevelopment project: Theory and methodology. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry: Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 59, 497–508.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsson, C. A., Byrnes, G. B., Anney, R. J. L., Collins, V., Hemphill, S. A., Williamson, R., et al. (2007). COMT Val158Met and 5HTTLPR functional loci interact to predict persistence of anxiety across adolescence: Results from the Victorian Adolescent Health Cohort Study. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 6, 647–652.Google Scholar
Pederson, D. R., Moran, G., Sitko, C., Campbell, K., Ghesquire, K., & Acton, H. (1990). Maternal sensitivity and the security of infant-mother attachment: A Q-Sort study. Child Development, 61, 1974–1983.Google Scholar
Phelps, E. A., & LeDoux, J. E. (2005). Contributions of the amygdala to emotion processing: From animal models to human behavior. Neuron, 48, 175–187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Plunkett, J. W., Klein, T., & Meisels, S. J. (1988). The relationship of preterm infant-mother attachment to stranger sociability at 3 years. Infant Behavior and Development, 11, 83–96.Google Scholar
Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2000). Developing mechanisms of self-regulation. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 427–441.Google Scholar
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.Google Scholar
Rice, F., Harold, G. T., & Thapar, A. (2006). The effect of birth-weight with genetic susceptibility on depressive symptoms in childhood and adolescence. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 15, 383–391.Google Scholar
Rode, S. S., Chang, P.-N., Fisch, R. O., & Sroufe, L. (1981). Attachment patterns of infants separated at birth. Developmental Psychology, 17, 188–191.Google Scholar
Schafer, J. L. (1999). Multiple imputation: A primer. Statistical Methods in Medical Research, 8, 3–15.Google Scholar
Schlotz, W., & Phillips, D. I. (2009). Fetal origins of mental health: Evidence and mechanisms. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 23, 905–916.Google Scholar
Seckl, J. R., & Holmes, M. C. (2007). Mechanisms of disease: Glucocorticoids, their placental metabolism and fetal “programming” of adult pathophysiology. Nature Clinical Practice: Endocrinology & Metabolism, 3, 479–488.Google Scholar
Serretti, A., Cristina, S., Lilli, R., Cusin, C., Lattuada, E., Lorenzi, C., et al. (2002). Family-based association study of 5-HTTLPR, TPH, MAO-A, and DRD4 polymorphisms in mood disorders. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 114, 361–369.Google Scholar
Smolla, N., Béliveau, M.-J., Lépine, S., Lévesque, A., & Martin, V. (2009). Intrauterine growth retardation among young psychiatric patients born full-term with birth weights over 2,500 g. Poster presented at the 30th Congress of the Society of Behavioral Medicine, Montréal.Google Scholar
Spangler, G., Johann, M., Ronai, Z., & Zimmermann, P. (2009). Genetic and environmental influence on attachment disorganization. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 952–961.Google Scholar
Tian, C., Gregersen, P. K., & Seldin, M. F. (2008). Accounting for ancestry: Population substructure and genome-wide association studies. Human Molecular Genetics, 17, R143–R150.Google Scholar
Valero De Bernabe, J., Soriano, T., Albaladejo, R., Juarranz, M., Calle, M. E., Martinez, D., et al. (2004). Risk factors for low birth weight: A review. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology, 116, 3–15.Google Scholar
Van Batenburg-Eddes, T., Brion, M. J., Henrichs, J., Jaddoe, V. W., Hofman, A., Verhulst, F. C., et al. (2013). Parental depressive and anxiety symptoms during pregnancy and attention problems in children: A cross-cohort consistency study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 54, 591–600.Google Scholar
van Buuren, S., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011). MICE: Multivariate imputation by chained equations in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 45, 1–67.Google Scholar
van den Boom, D. C. (1994). The influence of temperament and mothering on attachment and exploration: An experimental manipulation of sensitive responsiveness among lower-class mothers with irritable infants. Child Development, 65, 1457–1477.Google Scholar
van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2006). DRD4 7-repeat polymorphism moderates the association between maternal unresolved loss or trauma and infant disorganization. Attachment & Human Development, 8, 291–307.Google Scholar
van IJzendoorn, M. H., Schuengel, C., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (1999). Disorganized attachment in early childhood: Meta-analysis of precursors, concomitants, and sequelae. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 225–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Van Lieshout, R. J., & Boyle, M. H. (2011). Canadian youth born large or small for gestational age and externalizing and internalizing problems. Naître gros ou petit pour I'âge gestationnel et les problèmes d'externalisation et d'internalisation dans une cohorte de jeunes canadiens, 56, 227–234.Google ScholarPubMed
van Mil, N. H., Steegers-Theunissen, R. P. M., Motazedi, E., Jansen, P. W., Jaddoe, V. W. V., Steegers, E. A. P., et al. (2015). Low and high birth weight and the risk of child attention problems. Journal of Pediatrics. Advance online publication.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, X., Zhong, P., Gu, Z., & Yan, Z. (2003). Regulation of NMDA receptors by dopamine D4 signaling in prefrontal cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 9852–9861.Google Scholar
Waters, E., & Deane, K. E. (1985). Growing points of attachment theory and research. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 50, 41–65.Google Scholar
Wei, J.-N., Li, H.-Y., Sung, F.-C., Lin, C.-C., Chiang, C.-C., Li, C.-Y., et al. (2007). Birth weight correlates differently with cardiovascular risk factors in youth. Obesity, 15, 1609–1616.Google Scholar
Weiss, S. J., Wilson, P., Hertenstein, M. J., & Campos, R. (2000). The tactile context of a mother's caregiving: Implications for attachment of low birth weight infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 23, 91–111.Google Scholar
Whiteside-Mansell, L., Bradley, R. H., Casey, P. H., Fussell, J. J., & Conners-Burrow, N. A. (2009). Triple risk: Do difficult temperament and family conflict increase the likelihood of behavioral maladjustment in children born low birth weight and preterm? Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 34, 396–405.Google Scholar
Williams, J. M., Mathews, A., & MacLeod, C. (1996). The emotional Stroop task and psychopathology. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 3–24.Google Scholar
Winstanley, C. A., Theobald, D. E., Dalley, J. W., & Robbins, T. W. (2005). Interactions between serotonin and dopamine in the control of impulsive choice in rats: Therapeutic implications for impulse control disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology, 30, 669–682.Google Scholar
Wong, M. Y., Day, N. E., Luan, J. A., Chan, K. P., & Wareham, N. J. (2003). The detection of gene-environment interaction for continuous traits: Should we deal with measurement error by bigger studies or better measurement? International Journal of Epidemiology, 32, 51–57.Google Scholar