Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-7cvxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T08:18:47.345Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Observed parenting behaviors interact with a polymorphism of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene to predict the emergence of oppositional defiant and callous–unemotional behaviors at age 3 years

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 November 2013

Michael T. Willoughby ,
Roger Mills-Koonce ,
Cathi B. Propper  and
Daniel A. Waschbusch
Michael T. Willoughby*
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Roger Mills-Koonce
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Cathi B. Propper
Affiliation:
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Daniel A. Waschbusch
Affiliation:
Florida International University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Michael Willoughby, FPG Child Development Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Campus Box 8185, 521 South Greensboro Street, Carrboro, NC 27510; E-mail: willoughby@unc.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Using the Durham Child Health and Development Study, this study (N = 171) tested whether observed parenting behaviors in infancy (6 and 12 months) and toddlerhood/preschool (24 and 36 months) interacted with a child polymorphism of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene to predict oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) and callous–unemotional (CU) behaviors at age 3 years. Child genotype interacted with observed harsh and intrusive (but not sensitive) parenting to predict ODD and CU behaviors. Harsh–intrusive parenting was more strongly associated with ODD and CU for children with a methionine allele of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor gene. CU behaviors were uniquely predicted by harsh–intrusive parenting in infancy, whereas ODD behaviors were predicted by harsh–intrusive parenting in both infancy and toddlerhood/preschool. The results are discussed from the perspective of the contributions of caregiving behaviors as contributing to distinct aspects of early onset disruptive behavior.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 25 , Issue 4pt1 , November 2013 , pp. 903 - 917
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA Preschool Forms and Profiles: An integrated system of multi-informant assessment. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Aguilar, B., Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Carlson, E. (2000). Distinguishing the early-onset/persistent and adolescence-onset antisocial behavior types: From birth to 16 years. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 109–132.Google Scholar
Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Alink, L. R. A., Mesman, J., van Zeijl, J., Stolk, M. N., Juffer, F., Koot, H. M., et al. (2006). The early childhood aggression curve: Development of physical aggression in 10- to 50-month-old children. Child Development, 77, 954–966.Google Scholar
Barry, R. A., Kochanska, G., & Philibert, R. A. (2008). G × E interaction in the organization of attachment: Mothers’ responsiveness as a moderator of children's genotypes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 1313–1320.Google Scholar
Blair, C., Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., Mills-Koonce, R., Willoughby, M., Greenberg, M. T., et al. (2008). Maternal and child contributions to cortisol response to emotional arousal in young children from low-income, rural communities. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1095–1109.Google Scholar
Blair, R. J. R. (2007). Dysfunctions of medial and lateral orbitofrontal cortex in psychopathy. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1121, 461–479.Google Scholar
Blair, R. J. R. (2008). The amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex: Functional contributions and dysfunction in psychopathy. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 363B, 2557–2565.Google Scholar
Blair, R. J. R. (2010). A cognitive neuroscience perspective on child and adolescent psychopathy. In Salelin, R. T. & Lynam, D. R. (Eds.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 156–178). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Blair, R. J. R., Peschardt, K. S., Budhani, S., Mitchell, D. G. V., & Pine, D. S. (2006). The development of psychopathy. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 262–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bliss-Moreau, E., Toscano, J. E., Bauman, M. D., Mason, W. A., & Amaral, D. G. (2010). Neonatal amygdala or hippocampus lesions influence responsiveness to objects. Developmental Psychobiology, 52, 487–503.Google Scholar
Burke, J. D., Waldman, I., & Lahey, B. B. (2010). Predictive validity of childhood oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder: Implications for the DSM-V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 739–751.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buss, C., Lord, C., Wadiwalla, M., Hellhammer, D. H., Lupien, S. J., Meaney, M. J., et al. (2007). Maternal care modulates the relationship between prenatal risk and hippocampal volume in women but not in men. Journal of Neuroscience, 27, 2592–2595.Google Scholar
Casey, B. J., Glatt, C. E., Tottenham, N., Soliman, F., Bath, K., Amso, D., et al. (2009). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor as a model system for examining gene by environment interactions across development. Neuroscience, 164, 108–120.Google Scholar
Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2006). Gene–environment interactions in psychiatry: Joining forces with neuroscience. Nature Review Neuroscience, 7, 583.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Christian, R. E., Frick, P. J., Hill, N. L., Tyler, L., & Frazer, D. R. (1997). Psychopathy and conduct problems in children: 2. Implications for subtyping children with conduct problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 233–241.Google Scholar
Cornell, A. H., & Frick, P. J. (2007). The moderating effects of parenting styles in the association between behavioral inhibition and parent-reported guilt and empathy in preschool children. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 305–318.Google Scholar
Crittenden, P. (2008). Raising parents: Attachment, parenting and child safety. Devon: Willan Publishing.Google Scholar
Dadds, M., & Salmon, K. (2003). Punishment insensitivity and parenting: Temperament and learning as interacting risks for antisocial behavior. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 69–86.Google Scholar
Dadds, M. R., Fraser, J., Frost, A., & Hawes, D. J. (2005). Disentangling the underlying dimensions of psychopathy and conduct problems in childhood: A community study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 400–410.Google Scholar
Dadds, M. R., Hawes, D. J., Frost, A. D., Vassallo, S., Bunn, P., Hunter, K., et al. (2009). Learning to “talk the talk”: The relationship of psychopathic traits to deficits in empathy across childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 599–606.Google Scholar
Daversa, M. T. (2010). Early environmental predictors of the affective and interpersonal constructs of psychopathy. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 54, 6–21.Google Scholar
De Wolff, M., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1997). Sensitivity and attachment: A meta-analysis on parental antecedents of infant attachment. Child Development, 68, 571–591.Google Scholar
Dougherty, L. R., Klein, D. N., Congdon, E., Canli, T., & Hayden, E. P. (2010). Interaction between 5-HTTLPR and BDNF Val66Met polymorphisms on HPA axis reactivity in preschoolers. Biological Psychology, 83, 93–100.Google Scholar
Edens, J. F., Skopp, N. A., & Cahill, M. A. (2008). Psychopathic features moderate the relationship between harsh and inconsistent parental discipline and adolescent antisocial behavior. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 37, 472–476.Google Scholar
Egan, M. F., Kojima, M., Callicott, J. H., Goldberg, T. E., Kolachana, B. S., Bertolino, A., et al. (2003) The BDNF val 66met polymorphism affects activity-dependent secretion of BDNF and human memory and hippocampal function. Cell, 112, 257–269.Google Scholar
Egger, H. L., & Angold, A. (2006). Common emotional and behavioral disorders in preschool children: Presentation, nosology, and epidemiology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 313–337.Google Scholar
Finger, E. C., Mitchell, D. G. V., Jones, M., & Blair, R. J. R. (2008). Dissociable roles of medial orbitofrontal cortex in human operant extinction learning. NeuroImage, 43, 748–755.Google Scholar
Fite, P. J., Greening, L., Stoppelbein, L., & Fabiano, G. A. (2009). Confirmatory factor analysis of the antisocial process screening device with a clinical inpatient population. Assessment, 16, 103–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fox, J. (1991). Regression diagnostics. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J. (2009). Extending the construct of psychopathy to youth: Implications for understanding, diagnosing, and treating antisocial children and adolescents. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry—Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie, 54, 803–812.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., Bodin, S. D., & Barry, C. T. (2000). Psychopathic traits and conduct problems in community and clinic-referred samples of children: Further development of the Psychopathy Screening Device. Psychological Assessment, 12, 382–393.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., & Moffitt, T. E. (2010). A proposal to the DSM-V childhood disorders and the ADHD and disruptive behavior disorders work groups to include a specifier to the diagnosis of conduct disorder based on the presence of callous–unemotional traits. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., & Morris, A. S. (2004). Temperament and developmental pathways to conduct problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 54–68.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., & Viding, E. (2009). Antisocial behavior from a developmental psychopathology perspective. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 1111–1131.Google Scholar
Frick, P. J., & White, S. F. (2008). Research review: The importance of callous–unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 359–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gao, Y., Raine, A., Chan, F., Venables, P. H., & Mednick, S. A. (2010). Early maternal and paternal bonding, childhood physical abuse and adult psychopathic personality. Psychological Medicine, 40, 1007–1016.Google Scholar
Gao, Y., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Dawson, M. E., & Mednick, S. A. (2008). Skin conductance fear conditioning from ages 3 to 8 years and antisocial/aggressive behavior at age 8. Biological Psychiatry, 63, 32S.Google Scholar
Gao, Y., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Dawson, M. E., & Mednick, S. A. (2010a). Association of poor childhood fear conditioning and adult crime. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 56–60.Google Scholar
Gao, Y., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Dawson, M. E., & Mednick, S. A. (2010b). Reduced electrodermal fear conditioning from ages 3 to 8 years is associated with aggressive behavior at age 8 years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 550–558.Google Scholar
Gao, Y., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., & Mednick, S. A. (2004). Relations between skin conductance orienting at ages 3–8 years and antisocial behavior at ages 8, 11, and 17 years. Psychophysiology, 41, S49.Google Scholar
Gartstein, M. A., & Rothbart, M. K. (2003). Studying infant temperament via the Revised Infant Behavior Questionnaire. Infant Behavior & Development, 26, 64–86.Google Scholar
Glenn, A. L., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., & Mednick, S. A. (2007). Early temperamental and psychophysiological precursors of adult psychopathic personality. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 508–518.Google Scholar
Granic, I., & Patterson, G. R. (2006). Toward a comprehensive model of antisocial development: A dynamic systems approach. Psychological Review, 113, 101–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hajcak, G., Castille, C., Olvet, D. M., Dunning, J. P., Roohi, J., & Hatchwell, E. (2009). Genetic variation in brain-derived neurotrophic factor and human fear conditioning. Genes Brain Behavior, 8, 80–85.Google Scholar
Hawes, D. J., & Dadds, M. R. (2005). The treatment of conduct problems in children with callous–unemotional traits. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 737–741.Google Scholar
Hayden, E. P., Klein, D. N., Dougherty, L. R., Olino, T. M., Dyson, M. W., Durbin, C. E., et al. (2010). The role of brain-derived neurotrophic factor genotype, parental depression, and relationship discord in predicting early-emerging negative emotionality. Psychological Science, 21, 1678–1685.Google Scholar
Henningsson, S., Borg, J., Lundberg, J., Bah, J., Lindstrom, M., Ryding, E., et al. (2009). Genetic variation in brain-derived neurotrophic factor is associated with serotonin transporter but not serotonin-1A receptor availability in men. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 477–485.Google Scholar
Hipwell, A. E., Pardini, D. A., Loeber, R., Sembower, M., Keenan, K., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2007). Callous–unemotional behaviors in young girls: Shared and unique effects relative to conduct problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 293–304.Google Scholar
Hutchison, K. E., Stallings, M., McGeary, J., & Bryan, A. (2004). Population stratification in the candidate gene study: Fatal threat or red herring? Psychological Bulletin, 130, 66–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaffee, S. R., & Price, T. S. (2007). Gene–environment correlations: A review of the evidence and implications for prevention of mental illness. Molecular Psychiatry, 12, 432–442.Google Scholar
Keenan, K., Boeldt, D., Chen, D., Coyne, C., Donald, R., Duax, J., et al. (2011). Predictive validity of DSM-IV oppositional defiant and conduct disorders in clinically referred preschoolers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 47–55.Google Scholar
Keenan, K., & Shaw, D. (1997). Developmental and social Influences on young girls’ early problem behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 95–113.Google Scholar
Keenan, K., & Wakschlag, L. S. (2000). More than the terrible twos: The nature and severity of behavior problems in clinic-referred preschool children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 33–46.Google Scholar
Keenan, K., & Wakschlag, L. S. (2004). Are oppositional defiant and conduct disorder symptoms normative behaviors in preschoolers? A comparison of referred and nonreferred children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 356–358.Google Scholar
Kiehl, K. A. (2006). A cognitive neuroscience perspective on psychopathy: Evidence for paralimbic system dysfunction. Psychiatry Research, 142, 107–128.Google Scholar
Kiehl, K. A., & Liddle, P. F. (2004). Electrophysiological evidence for paralimbic abnormalities in psychopathic offenders. Psychophysiology, 41, S91.Google Scholar
Kimonis, E. R., Frick, P. J., Boris, N. W., Smyke, A. T., Cornell, A. H., Farrell, J. M., et al. (2006). Callous–unemotional features, behavioral inhibition, and parenting: Independent predictors of aggression in a high-risk preschool sample. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15, 745–756.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Barry, R. A., Aksan, N., & Boldt, L. J. (2008). A developmental model of maternal and child contributions to disruptive conduct: The first six years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 1220–1227.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Barry, R. A., Jimenez, N. B., Hollatz, A. L., & Woodard, J. (2009). Guilt and effortful control: Two mechanisms that prevent disruptive developmental trajectories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 322–333.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Barry, R. A., Stellern, S. A., & O'Bleness, J. J. (2009). Early attachment organization moderates the parent–child mutually coercive pathway to children's antisocial conduct. Child Development, 80, 1288–1300.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Kim, S., Barry, R. A., & Philibert, R. A. (2011). Children's genotypes interact with maternal responsive care in predicting children's competence: Diathesis–stress or differential susceptibility? Development and Psychopathology, 23, 605–616.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Koenig, J. L., Barry, R. A., Kim, S., & Yoon, J. E. (2010). Children's conscience during toddler and preschool years, moral self, and a competent, adaptive developmental trajectory. Developmental Psychology, 46, 1320–1332.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Philibert, R. A., & Barry, R. A. (2009). Interplay of genes and early mother–child relationship in the development of self-regulation from toddler to preschool age. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1331–1338.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., Woodard, J., Kim, S., Koenig, J. L., Yoon, J. E., & Barry, R. A. (2010). Positive socialization mechanisms in secure and insecure parent–child dyads: Two longitudinal studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 998–1009.Google Scholar
Kotler, J. S., & McMahon, R. J. (2005). Child psychopathy: Theories, measurement, and relations with the development and persistence of conduct problems. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 8, 291–325.Google Scholar
Larsson, H., Tuvblad, C., Rijsdijk, F. V., Andershed, H., Grann, M., & Lichtenstein, P. (2007). A common genetic factor explains the association between psychopathic personality and antisocial behavior. Psychological Medicine, 37, 15–26.Google Scholar
Larsson, H., Viding, E., & Plomin, R. (2008). Callous–unemotional traits and antisocial behavior—Genetic, environmental, and early parenting characteristics. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 197–211.Google Scholar
Lavigne, J. V., Cicchetti, C., Gibbons, R. D., Binns, H. J., Larsen, L., & DeVito, C. (2001). Oppositional defiant disorder with onset in preschool years: Longitudinal stability and pathways to other disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1393–1400.Google Scholar
Liu, I. Y., Lyons, W. E., Mamounas, L. A., & Thompson, R. F. (2004). Brain-derived neurotrophic factor plays a critical role in contextual fear conditioning. Journal of Neuroscience, 24, 7958–7963.Google Scholar
Loeber, R., Burke, J. D., Lahey, B. B., Winters, A., & Zera, M. (2000). Oppositional defiant and conduct disorder: A review of the past 10 years, part I. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1468–1484.Google Scholar
Loeber, R., Wung, P., Keenan, K., Giroux, B., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Van Kammen, W. B., et al. (1993). Developmental pathways in disruptive child behavior. Developmental Psychopathology, 5, 101–133.Google Scholar
Luby, J., Belden, A., Sullivan, J., Hayen, R., McCadney, A., & Spitznagel, E. (2009). Shame and guilt in preschool depression: Evidence for elevations in self-conscious emotions in depression as early as age 3. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 1156–1166.Google Scholar
Lyons-Ruth, K., Bronfman, E., & Parsons, E. (1999). Maternal frightened, frightening, or atypical behavior and disorganized infant attachment patterns. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 64(3), 67–96.Google Scholar
Madigan, S., Moran, G., Schuengel, C., Pederson, D. R., & Otten, R. (2007). Unresolved maternal attachment representations, disrupted maternal behavior and disorganized attachment in infancy: Links to toddler behavior problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 1042–1050.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marks, I. M. (1987). The development of normal fear: A review. Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 28, 667–697.Google Scholar
Martinowich, K., & Lu, B. (2008). Interaction between BDNF and serotonin: Role in mood disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology, 33, 73–83.Google Scholar
McMahon, R. J., & Witkiewitz, K., Kotler, J. S., & Conduct Problems Research Group. (2010). Predictive validity of callous–unemotional traits measured in early adolescence with respect to multiple antisocial outcomes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 752–763.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2001). Childhood predictors differentiate life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways among males and females. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 355–375.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., & Rutter, M. (2005). Strategy for investigating interactions between measured genes and measured environments. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 473–481.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., & Rutter, M. (2006). Measured gene–environment interactions in psychopathology concepts, research strategies, and implications for research, intervention, and public understanding of genetics. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 5–27.Google Scholar
Moore, G. A., Hill-Soderlund, A. L., Propper, C. B., Calkins, S. D., Mills-Koonce, W., & Cox, M. J. (2009). Mother–infant vagal regulation in the face-to-face still-face paradigm is moderated by maternal sensitivity. Child Development, 80, 209–223.Google Scholar
Murrie, D. C., & Cornell, D. G. (2002). Psychopathy screening of incarcerated juveniles: A comparison of measures. Psychological Assessment, 14, 390–396.Google Scholar
NICHD Early Child Care Research Network. (1999). Child care and mother–child interaction in the first three years of life. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1399–1413.Google Scholar
Oxford, M., Cavell, T. A., & Hughes, J. N. (2003). Callous/unemotional traits moderate the relation between ineffective parenting and child externalizing problems: A partial replication and extension. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 577–585.Google Scholar
Patrick, C. J., Fowles, D. C., & Krueger, R. F. (2009). Triarchic conceptualization of psychopathy: Developmental origins of disinhibition, boldness, and meanness. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 913–938.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia.Google Scholar
Patterson, G. R., DeGarmo, D. S., & Knutson, N. (2000). Hyperactive and antisocial behaviors: Comorbid or two points in the same process? Development and Psychopathology, 12, 91–106.Google Scholar
Pauli-Pott, U., Friedl, S., Hinney, A., & Hebebrand, J. (2009). Serotonin transporter gene polymorphism (5-HTTLPR), environmental conditions, and developing negative emotionality and fear in early childhood. Journal of Neural Transmission, 116, 503–512.Google Scholar
Raine, A., Reynolds, C., Venables, P. H., Mednick, S. A., & Farrington, D. P. (1998). Fearlessness, stimulation-seeking, and large body size at age 3 years as early predispositions to childhood aggression at age 11 years. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 745–751.Google Scholar
Sadeh, N., Javdani, S., Jackson, J. J., Reynolds, E. K., Potenza, M. N., Gelernter, J., et al. (2010). Serotonin transporter gene associations with psychopathic traits in youth vary as a function of socioeconomic resources. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 604–609.Google Scholar
Saltaris, C. (2002). Psychopathy in juvenile offenders—Can temperament and attachment be considered as robust developmental precursors? Clinical Psychology Review, 22, 729–752.Google Scholar
Savitz, J., Solms, M., & Ramesar, R. (2006). The molecular genetics of cognition: Dopamine, COMT and BDNF. Genes Brain and Behavior, 5, 311–328.Google Scholar
Shi, Z., Bureau, J.-F., Easterbrooks, M. A., Zhao, X., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (2012). Childhood maltreatment and prospectively observed quality of early care as predictors of antisocial personality disorder. Infant Mental Health Journal, 33, 55–69.Google Scholar
Soliman, F., Glatt, C. E., Bath, K. G., Levita, L., Jones, R. M., Pattwell, S. S., et al. (2010). A genetic variant BDNF polymorphism alters extinction learning in both mouse and human. Science, 327, 863–866.Google Scholar
Speltz, M., McClellan, J., DeKleyn, M., & Jones, K. (1999). Preschool boys with oppositional defiant disorder: Clinical presentation and diagnostic change. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 838–845.Google Scholar
Suzuki, A., Matsumoto, Y., Shibuya, N., Sadahiro, R., Kamata, M., Goto, K., et al. (2011). The brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met polymorphism modulates the effects of parental rearing on personality traits in healthy subjects. Genes Brain and Behavior, 10, 385–391.Google Scholar
Swain, J. E., Lorberbaum, J. P., Kose, S., & Strathearn, L. (2007). Brain basis of early parent–infant interactions: Psychology, physiology, and in vivo functional neuroimaging studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 262–287.Google Scholar
Taylor, J., Loney, B. R., Bobadilla, L., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2003). Genetic and environmental influences on psychopathy trait dimensions in a community sample of male twins. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 633–645.Google Scholar
Taylor, S. E., Eisenberger, N. I., Saxbe, D., Lehman, B. J., & Lieberman, M. D. (2006). Neural responses to emotional stimuli are associated with childhood family stress. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 296–301.Google Scholar
Thomason, M. E., Yoo, D. J., Glover, G. H., & Gotlib, I. H. (2009). BDNF genotype modulates resting functional connectivity in children. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 3, 1–10.Google Scholar
Viding, E., Blair, R. J. R., Moffitt, T. E., & Plomin, R. (2005). Evidence for substantial genetic risk for psychopathy in 7-year-olds. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 592–597.Google Scholar
Viding, E., Frick, P. J., & Plomin, R. (2007). Aetiology of the relationship between callous–unemotional traits and conduct problems in childhood. British Journal of Psychiatry, 190, S33–S38.Google Scholar
Viding, E., Jones, A. P., Frick, P. J., Moffitt, T. E., & Plomin, R. (2008). Heritability of antisocial behaviour at 9: Do callous–unemotional traits matter? Developmental Science, 11, 17–22.Google Scholar
Wakschlag, L. S., Briggs-Gowan, M. J., Carter, A. S., Hill, C., Danis, B., Keenan, K., et al. (2007). A developmental framework for distinguishing disruptive behavior from normative misbehavior in preschool children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 976–987.Google Scholar
Waschbusch, D. A., Carrey, N. J., Willoughby, M. T., King, S., & Andrade, B. F. (2007). Effects of methylphenidate and behavior modification on the social and academic behavior of children with disruptive behavior disorders: The moderating role of callous/unemotional traits. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36, 629–644.Google Scholar
Weiler, B. L., & Widom, C. S. (1996). Psychopathy and violent behaviour in abused and neglected young adults. Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 6, 253–271.Google Scholar
Whittle, S., Yap, M. B. H., Sheeber, L., Dudgeon, P., Yücel, M., Pantelis, C., et al. (2011). Hippocampal volume and sensitivity to maternal aggressive behavior: A prospective study of adolescent depressive symptoms. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 115–129.Google Scholar
Willoughby, M. T., Waschbusch, D. A., Moore, G. A., & Propper, C. B. (2011). Using the ASEBA to screen for callous unemotional traits in early childhood: Factor structure, temporal stability, and utility. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 33, 19–30.Google Scholar
Woodworth, M., & Waschbusch, D. (2008). Emotional processing in children with conduct problems and callous/unemotional traits. Child Care Health and Development, 34, 234–244.Google Scholar
Wootton, J. M., Frick, P. J., Shelton, K. K., & Silverthorn, P. (1997). Ineffective parenting and childhood conduct problems: The moderating role of callous–unemotional traits. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 301–308.Google Scholar
Yap, M. H., Whittle, S., Yücel, M., Sheeber, L., Pantelis, C., Simmons, J. G., et al. (2008). Interaction of parenting experiences and brain structure in the prediction of depressive symptoms in adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 1377–1385.Google Scholar