Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gbm5v Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T09:04:58.421Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Phenomenology and diagnosis of bipolar disorder in children, adolescents, and adults: Complexities and developmental issues

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  25 October 2006

GABRIELLE A. CARLSON  and
STEPHANIE E. MEYER
GABRIELLE A. CARLSON
Affiliation:
State University of New York, Stony Brook
STEPHANIE E. MEYER
Affiliation:
Cedars Sinai Medical Center
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This review addresses the phenomenology of mania/bipolar disorder from a developmental psychopathology perspective and uses cases with longitudinal information to illustrate major points. Beginning with a summary of the phenomenology of bipolar illness as it occurs in adults, the authors identify diagnostic complexities unique to children and adolescents. These include the challenges of characterizing elation and grandiosity; differentiating mania from comorbid symptoms, rages, sequelae of maltreatment, and typical developmental phenomena; and the unique manifestations of psychosis. We conclude with the observation that a significant difference between early and later onset bipolar disorder is that, in the former, there appears to be a global delay or arrest in the development of appropriate affect regulation; whereas in adult-onset bipolar illness, emotion dysregulation generally presents as an intermittent phenomenon. At this juncture, the study of childhood bipolar illness would benefit from a developmental psychopathology perspective to move beyond the level of cross-sectional symptom description to begin to study individuals over time, focusing on developmental, environmental, genetic, and neurobiological influences on manifest behavior.This review was supported in part by funding from NIMH Grant 44801 and grants from Janssen Pharmaceutica and Abbott Laboratories.

Type
Research Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 18 , Issue 4 , December 2006 , pp. 939 - 969
Copyright
© 2006 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Achenbach, T., & Edelbrock, C. S. (1981). Behavioral problems and competencies reported by parents of normal and disturbed children aged four through sixteen. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Akiskal, H. S. (1986). A developmental perspective on recurrent mood disorders: A review of studies in man. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 22, 579–586.Google Scholar
Akiskal, H. S. (1996). The temperamental foundations of affective disorders. In C. Mundt, M. J. Goldstein, K. Hahlweg, & P. Fiedler (Eds.), Interpersonal factors in the origin and course of affective disorders (pp. 3–30). Dorchester: The Dorset Press.
Akiskal, H. S., Djenderedjian, A. M., Rosenthal, R. H., & Khani, M. K. (1977). Cyclothymic disorder: Validating criteria for inclusion in the bipolar affective group. American Journal of Psychiatry, 134, 1227–1233.Google Scholar
Altman, E. G., Hedeker, D., Peterson, J. L., & Davis, J. M. (1997). The Altman Self-Rating Mania Scale. Biological Psychiatry, 42, 948–955.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1952). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (1st ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
American Psychiatric Association. (1968). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
American Psychiatric Association. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author.
Angold, A., Costello, E. J., & Erkanli, A. (1999). Comorbidity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 57–87.Google Scholar
Angst, J., Gerber-Werder, R., Zuberbühler, H. U., & Gamma, A. (2004). Is bipolar I disorder heterogeneous? European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 254, 82–91.Google Scholar
Angst, J., & Sellaro, R. (2000). Historical perspectives and natural history of bipolar disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 445–457.Google Scholar
Annell, A. L. (1969). Manic-depressive illness in children and effect of treatment with lithium carbonate. Acta Paedopsychiatrica, 36, 292–301.Google Scholar
Anthony, E. J., & Scott, P. (1960). Manic-depressive psychosis in childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 1, 53–72.Google Scholar
Ballenger, J. C., Reus, V. I., & Post, R. M. (1982). The “atypical” clinical picture of adolescent mania. American Journal of Psychiatry, 139, 602–606.Google Scholar
Barkley, R. A., Fischer, M., Edelbrock, C. S., & Smallish, L. (1990). The adolescent outcome of hyperactive children diagnosed by research criteria: I. An 8-year prospective follow-up study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 546–557.Google Scholar
Bauer, M. S., Altshuler, L., Evans, D. R., Beresford, T., Williford, W. O., & Hauger, R. (2005). Prevalence and distinct correlates of anxiety, substance, and combined comorbidity in a multi-site public sector sample with bipolar disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 85, 301–315.Google Scholar
Becker, D. F., McGlashan, T. H., & Grilo, C. M. (2006). Exploratory factor analysis of borderline personality disorder criteria in hospitalized adolescents. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 47, 99–105.Google Scholar
Bertelsen, A., Harvald, B., & Hauge, M. (1977). A Danish twin study of manic-depressive disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry, 130, 330–351.Google Scholar
Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Chu, M. P., & Wozniak, J. (1999). Further evidence of a bidirectional overlap between juvenile mania and conduct disorder in children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 468–476.Google Scholar
Biederman, J., Mick, E., Faraone, S. V., Van Patten, S., Burback, M., & Wozniak, J. (2004). A prospective follow-up study of pediatric bipolar disorder in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 82(Suppl. 1), S17–S23.Google Scholar
Biederman, J., Russell, R., Soriano, J., Wozniak, J., & Faraone, S. V. (1998). Clinical features of children with both ADHD and mania: Does ascertainment source make a difference? Journal of Affective Disorders, 51, 101–112.Google Scholar
Birmaher, B., Axelson, D., Strober, M., Gill, M. K., Valeri, S., Chiappetta, L., et al. (2006). Clinical course of children and adolescents with bipolar spectrum disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 175–183.Google Scholar
Bowden, C., & Maier, W. (2003). Bipolar disorder and personality disorder. European Journal of Psychiatry, 18, 9s–12s.Google Scholar
Bowring, M. A., & Kovacs, M. (1992). Difficulties in diagnosing manic disorders among children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 611–614.Google Scholar
Boylan, K. R., Bieling, P. J., Marriott, M., Begin, H., Young, L. T., & MacQueen, G. M. (2004). Impact of comorbid anxiety disorders on outcome in a cohort of patients with bipolar disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65, 1106–1113.Google Scholar
Breslau, N. (1987). Inquiring about the bizarre: False positives in Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC) ascertainment of obsessions, compulsions, and psychotic symptoms. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 639–644.Google Scholar
Bromet, E. J., Schwartz, J. E., Fennig, S., Geller, L., Jandorf, L., Kovasznay, B., et al. (1992). The epidemiology of psychosis: The Suffolk County Mental Health Project. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 18, 243–255.Google Scholar
Calabrese, J. R., Bowden, C. L., Sachs, G., Yatham, L. N., Behnke, K., Methonen, O. P., et al. (2003). A placebo-controlled 18-month trial of lamotrigine and lithium maintenance treatment in recently deperessed patients with bipolar I disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 64, 1013–1024.Google Scholar
Campbell, J. D. (1953). Manic-depressive disease. Philadelphia, PA: J. B. Lippincott Company.
Cannon, M., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Harrington, H., Taylor, A., Murray, R. M., et al. (2002). Evidence for early-childhood, pan-developmental impairment specific to schizophreniform disorder: Results from a longitudinal birth cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 449–456.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A. (2005a). Early onset bipolar disorder: Clinical and research considerations. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 333–343.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A. (2005b). Medication-induced activation in children and adolescents. Psychiatric Times, XXII.
Carlson, G. A., & Blader, J. C. (2006). Rages and tantrums. Presented at the NIMH Pediatric Bipolar Disorders Conference, Chicago.
Carlson, G. A., Bromet, E. J., Driessens, C., Mojtabai, R., & Schwartz, J. E. (2002). Age at onset, childhood psychopathology, and 2-year outcome in psychotic bipolar disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 307–309.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A., Bromet, E. J., & Jandorf, L. (1998). Conduct disorder and mania: What does it mean in adults. Journal of Affective Disorders, 48, 199–205.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A., Bromet, E. J., & Sievers, S. (2000). Phenomenology and outcome of subjects with early- and adult-onset psychotic mania. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 213–219.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A., & Fahim, F. (1998). “George.” Journal of Affective Disorders, 51, 195–198.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A., Fennig, S., & Bromet, E. J. (1994). The confusion between bipolar disorder and schizophrenia in youth: Where does it stand in the 1990s? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 453–460.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A., & Goodwin, F. K. (1973). The stages of mania. A longitudinal analysis of the manic episode. Archives of General Psychiatry, 28, 221–228.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A., & Kashani, J. H. (1988). Manic symptoms in a non-referred adolescent population. Journal of Affective Disorders, 15, 219–226.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A., & Kelly, K. L. (1998). Manic symptoms in psychiatrically hospitalized children: What do they mean? Journal of Affective Disorders, 51, 123–135.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A., Loney, J., Salisbury, H., Kramer, J. R., & Arthur, C. (2000). Stimulant treatment in young boys with symptoms suggesting childhood mania: A report from a longitudinal study. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 10, 175–184.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A., Loney, J., Salisbury, H., & Volpe, R. J. (1998). Young referred boys with DICA-P manic symptoms vs. two comparison groups. Journal of Affective Disorders, 51, 113–121.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A., & Mick, E. (2003). Drug-induced disinhibition in psychiatrically hospitalized children. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 13, 153–163.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A., Potegal, M., Gutkovich, A., & Margulies, D. (2005). Are children's rages severe temper tantrums? Presented at the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, Annual Meeting, Toronto, Canada.
Carlson, G. A., & Strober, M. (1978a). Affective disorder in adolescence: Issues in misdiagnosis. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 39, 59–66.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A., & Strober, M. (1978b). Manic depressive illness in early adolescence: A study of clinical and diagnostic characteristics in six cases. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 17, 138–153.Google Scholar
Carlson, G. A., & Youngstrom, E. A. (2003). Clinical implications of pervasive manic symptoms in children. Biological Psychiatry, 53, 1050–1058.Google Scholar
Chen, Y. W., & Dilsaver, S. C. (1995). Comorbidity for obsessive-compulsive disorder in bipolar and unipolar disorders. Psychiatry Research, 59, 57–64.Google Scholar
Chengappa, K. N., Kupfer, D. J., Frank, E., Houck, P. R., Grochocinski, V. J., Cluss, P., et al. (2003). Relationship of birth cohort and early age at onset of illness in a bipolar disorder case registry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 1636–1642.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (1993). Developmental psychopathology: Reactions, reflections, projections. Developmental Review, 13, 471–502.Google Scholar
Cipriani, A., Pretty, H., Hawton, K., & Geddes, J. R. (2005). Lithium in the prevention of suicidal behavior and all-cause mortality in patients with mood disorders: A systematic review of randomized trials. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 1805–1819.Google Scholar
Coccaro, E. F., Posternak, M. A., & Zimmerman, M. (2005). Prevalence and features of intermittent explosive disorder in a clinical setting. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66, 1221–1227.Google Scholar
Cohen, P., Crawford, T. N., Johnson, J. G., & Kasen, S. (2005). The children in the community study of developmental course of personality disorder. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19, 466–486.Google Scholar
Cooper, J. E., Kendell, R. E., Gurland, B. J., Sharpe, L., Copeland, J. R. M., & Simon, R. (1972). Psychiatric diagnosis in New York and London: A comparative study of mental hospital admissions. London: Oxford University Press.
Cornblatt, B., Obuchowski, M., Roberts, S., Pollack, S., & Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L. (1999). Cognitive and behavioral precursors of schizophrenia. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 487–508.Google Scholar
Cukrowicz, K. C., Taylor, J., Schatschneider, C., & Iacono, W. G. (2006). Personality differences in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, and controls. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 151–159.Google Scholar
Dekker, M. C., Koot, H. M., van der Ende, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2002). Emotional and behavioral problems in children and adolescents with and without intellectual disability. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 1087–1098.Google Scholar
DelBello, M. P., Carlson, G. A., Tohen, M., Bromet, E. J., Schwiers, M., & Strakowski, S. M. (2003). Rates and predictors of developing a manic or hypomanic episode 1 to 2 years following a first hospitalization for major depression with psychotic features. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 13, 173–186.Google Scholar
Depue, R. A., Slater, J. F., Wolfstetter-Kausch, H., Klein, D., Goplerud, E., & Farr, D. (1981). A behavioral paradigm for identifying persons at risk for bipolar depressive disorder: A conceptual framework and five validation studies. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90, 381–437.Google Scholar
Dhossche, D., Ferdinand, R., Van der Ende, J., Hofstra, M. B., & Verhulst, F. (2002). Diagnostic outcome of self-reported hallucinations in a community sample of adolescents. Psychological Medicine, 32, 619–627.Google Scholar
Dickstein, D. P., Rich, B. A., Binstock, A. B., Pradella, A. G., Towbin, K. E., Pine, D. S., et al. (2005). Comorbid anxiety in phenotypes of pediatric bipolar disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 15, 534–548.Google Scholar
Dubicka, B. W., Carlson, G. A., Harrington, R. C., & Vail, X. (2005). US/UK diagnosis of prepubertal mania: Preliminary study (poster). New York: International Society for Research in Child and Adolescent Psychopathology.
Egeland, B., Sroufe, L. A., & Erickson, M. (1983). The developmental consequences of different patterns of maltreatment. Child Abuse and Neglect, 7, 459–469.Google Scholar
Egger, H. L., & Angold, A. (2006). Common emotional and behavioral disorders in preschool children: Presentation, nosology, and epidemiology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 313–337.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Nyman, M., Bernzweig, J., & Pinuelas, A. (1994). The relations of emotionality and regulation to children's anger-related reactions. Child Development, 65, 109–128.Google Scholar
Erlenmeyer-Kimling, L., Rock, D., Roberts, S. A., Janal, M., Kestenbaum, C., Cornblatt, B., et al. (2000). Attention, memory, and motor skills as childhood predictors of schizophrenia-related psychoses: The New York High-Risk Project. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1416–1422.Google Scholar
Escher, S., Romme, M., Buiks, A., Delespaul, P., & Van Os, J. (2002). Independent course of childhood auditory hallucinations: A sequential 3-year follow-up study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 181(Suppl. 43), s10–s8.Google Scholar
Faraone, S. V. (2000). Genetics of childhood disorders: XX. ADHD, part 4: Is ADHD genetically heterogeneous? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1455–1457.Google Scholar
Faraone, S. V., Biederman, J., Wozniak, J., Mundy, E., Mennin, D. & O'Donnell, D. (1997). Is comorbidity with ADHD a marker for juvenile-onset mania? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1046–1055.Google Scholar
Faraone, S. V., Glatt, S. J., & Tsuang, M. T. (2003). The genetics of pediatric-onset bipolar disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 53, 970–977.Google Scholar
Feske, U., Frank, E., Mallinger, A. G., Houck, P. R., Fagiolini, A., Shear, M. K., et al. (2000). Anxiety as a correlate of response to the acute treatment of bipolar I disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 956–962.Google Scholar
Findling, R. L., Gracious, B. L., McNamara, N. K., Youngstrom, E. A., Demeter, C. A., Branicky, L. A., et al. (2001). Rapid, continuous cycling and psychiatric co-morbidity in pediatric bipolar I disorder. Bipolar Disorders, 3, 202–210.Google Scholar
Galanter, C. A., Carlson, G. A., Jensen, P. S., Greenhill, L., Davies, M., Li, W., et al. (2003). Response to methylphenidate in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and manic symptoms in the multimodal treatment study of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder titration trial. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 13, 123–136.Google Scholar
Galanter, C. A., Pagard, D. L., Davies, M., Li, W., Carlson, G. A., Abikoff, H. B., et al. (2005). ADHD and manic symptoms: Diagnostic and treatment implications. Clinical Neuroscience Research, 5, 283–294.Google Scholar
Garno, J. L., Goldberg, J. F., Ramirez, P. M., & Ritzler, B. A. (2005). Impact of childhood abuse on the clinical course of bipolar disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 121–125.Google Scholar
Garralda, M. E. (1984). Hallucinations in children with conduct and emotional disorders, II: The follow-up study. Psychological Medicine, 14, 597–604.Google Scholar
Gartner, J., Weintraub, S., & Carlson, G. A. (1997). Childhood-onset psychosis: evolution and comorbidity. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 256–261.Google Scholar
Gaudiano, B. A., & Miller, I. W. (2005). Anxiety disorder comorbidity in bipolar I disorder: Relationship to depression severity and treatment outcome. Depression and Anxiety, 21, 71–77.Google Scholar
Geller, B., Craney, J. L., Bolhofner, K., Nickelsburg, M. J., Williams, M., & Zimerman, B. (2002). Two-year prospective follow-up of children with a prepubertal and early adolescent bipolar disorder phenotype. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 927–933.Google Scholar
Geller, B., Tillman, R., Craney, J. L., & Bolhofner, K. (2004). Four-year prospective outcome and natural history of mania in children with a prepubertal and early adolescent bipolar disorder phenotype. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 459–467.Google Scholar
Geller, B., Zimerman, B., Williams, M., DelBello, M. P., Bolhofner, K., Craney, J. L., et al. (2002). DSM-IV mania symptoms in a prepubertal and early adolescent bipolar disorder phenotype compared to attention-deficit hyperactive and normal controls. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 12, 11–25.Google Scholar
Gershon, E. S. (1990). Genetics. In F. K. Goodwin & K. R. Jamison (Eds.), Manic-depressive illness (pp. 373–401). New York: Oxford University Press.
Ghaemi, S. N., Hsu, D. J., Soldani, F., & Goodwin, F. K. (2003). Antidepressants in bipolar disorder: The case for caution. Bipolar Disorders, 5, 421–433.Google Scholar
Glovinsky, I. (2002). A brief history of childhood-onset bipolar disorder through 1980. Child and Adolescent Clinics of North America, 11, 443–460.Google Scholar
Gonzalez-Pinto, A., Aldama, A., Pinto, A. G., Mosquera, F., Perez de Heredia, J. L., Ballesteros, J., et al. (2004). Dimensions of mania: Differences between mixed and pure episodes. European Psychiatry, 19, 307–310.Google Scholar
Goodwin, F. K., & Jamison, K. R. (1990). Manic-depressive illness. New York: Oxford University Press.
Gould, R. A., Ball, S., Kaspi, S. P., Otto, M. W., Pollack, M. H., Shekhar, A., et al. (1996). Prevalence and correlates of anger attacks: A two site study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 39, 31–38.Google Scholar
Greene, R. W. (2001). The explosive child. New York: Harper Collins.
Greenhill, L. L., Rieder, R. O., Wender, P. H., Buchsbaum, M., & Zhan, T. P. (1973). Lithium carbonate in the treatment of hyperactive children. Archives of General Psychiatry, 28, 636.Google Scholar
Hammen, C., & Gitlin, M. (1997). Stress reactivity in bipolar patients and its relation to prior history of disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 856–857.Google Scholar
Hlastala, S. A., & McClellan, J. (2005). Phenomenology and diagnostic stability of youths with atypical psychotic symptoms. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 15, 497–509.Google Scholar
Hoza, B., Pelham, W. E., Dobbs, J., Owens, J. S., & Pillow, D. R. (2002). Do boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder have positive illusory self-concepts? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 268–278.Google Scholar
Jaffee, S. R., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Dodge, K. A., Rutter, M., Taylor, A., et al. (2005). Nature × nurture: Genetic vulnerabilities interact with physical maltreatment to promote conduct problems. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 67–84.Google Scholar
Janardhan Reddy, Y. C., & Srinath, S. (2000). Juvenile bipolar disorder. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 102, 162–170.Google Scholar
Kafantaris, V., Coletti, D. J., Dicker, R., Padula, G., & Kane, J. M. (2003). Lithium treatment of acute mania in adolescents: A large open trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 1038–1045.Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Rubinow, D. R., Holmes, C., Abelson, J. M., & Zhao, S. (1997). The epidemiology of DSM-III-R bipolar I disorder in a general population survey. Psychological Medicine, 27, 1079–1089.Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Stang, P., Wittchen, H.-U., Stein, M., & Walters, E. E. (1999). Lifetime co-morbidities between social phobia and mood disorders in the US National Comorbidity Survey. Psychological Medicine, 29, 555–567.Google Scholar
Klein, D. N., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Seeley, J. R. (1996). Hypomanic personality traits in a community sample of adolescents. Journal of Affective Disorder, 38, 135–143.Google Scholar
Kolodziej, M. E., Griffin, M. L., Najavitz, L. M., Otto, M. W., Greenfield, S. F. & Weiss, R. D. (2005). Anxiety disorders among patients with co-occurring bipolar and substance use disorders. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 80, 251–257.Google Scholar
Konstantareas, M. M., & Stewart, K. (in press). Affect regulation and temperament in children with autistic spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders.
Kovacs, M., & Pollock, M. (1995). Bipolar disorder and comorbid conduct disorder in childhood and adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 715–723.Google Scholar
Kowatch, R. A., Fristad, M., Birmaher, B., Wagner, K. D., Findling, R. L., & Hellander, M. (2005). Treatment guidelines for children and adolescents with bipolar disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 213–235.Google Scholar
Kraepelin, E. (1921). Manic depressive insanity and paranoia. Edinburgh: Livingstone.
Kumra, S., Jacobsen, L. K., Lenane, M., Zahn, T. P., Wiggs, E., Alaghband-Rad, J., et al. (1998). “Multidimensionally impaired disorder”: Is it a variant of very early-onset schizophrenia? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 91–99.Google Scholar
Kutcher, S., Robertson, H. A., & Bird, D. (1998). Premorbid functioning in adolescent onset bipolar I disorder: A preliminary report from an ongoing study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 51, 137–144.Google Scholar
Lansford, J. E., Dodge, K. A., Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., Crozier, J., & Kaplow, J. (2002). A 12-year prospective study of the long-term effects of early child physical maltreatment on psychological, behavioral, and academic problems in adolescence. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 156, 824–830.Google Scholar
Lau, A. S., & Weisz, J. R. (2003). Reported maltreatment among clinic-referred children: Implications for presenting problems, treatment attrition, and long-term outcomes. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 1327–1334.Google Scholar
Leboyer, M., Henry, C., Paillere-Martinot, M.-L., & Bellivier, F. (2005). Age at onset in bipolar affective disorders: a review. Bipolar Disorders, 7, 111–118.Google Scholar
Leibenluft, E., Charney, D. S., Towbin, K. E., Bhangoo, R. K., & Pine, D. S. (2003). Defining clinical phenotypes of juvenile mania. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 430–437.Google Scholar
Leibenluft, E., Cohen, P., Gorrindo, T., Brook, J. S., & Pine, D. S. (in press). Chronic vs. episodic irritability in youth: A community-based, longitudinal study of clinical and diagnostic associations. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology.
Leverich, G. S., McElroy, S. L., Suppes, T., Keck, P. E., Denicoff, K. D., Nolen, W. A., et al. (2002). Early physical and sexual abuse associated with an adverse course of bipolar illness. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 288–297.Google Scholar
Levitan, R. D., Parikh, S. V., Lesage, A. D., Hegadoren, K. M., Adams, M., Kennedy, S. H., et al. (1998). Major depression in individuals with a history of childhood physical or sexual abuse: Relationship to neurovegetative features, mania, and gender. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 1746–1752.Google Scholar
Lewinsohn, P. M., Klein, D. N., & Seeley, J. R. (1995). Bipolar disorders in a community sample of older adolescents: Prevalence, phenomenology, comorbidity, and course. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 453–463.Google Scholar
Loranger, A. W., & Levine, P. M. (1978). Age at onset of bipolar affective illness. Archives of General Psychiatry, 35, 1345–1348.Google Scholar
MacKinnon, D. F., & Pies, R. (2006). Affective instability as rapid cycling: Theoretical and clinical implications for borderline personality and bipolar spectrum disorders. Bipolar Disorders, 8, 1–14.Google Scholar
Mannuzza, S., & Klein, R. G. (2000). Long-term prognosis in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 9, 711–726.Google Scholar
Marchand, W. R., Wirth, L., & Simon, C. (2005). Adverse life events and pediatric bipolar disorder in a community mental health setting. Community Mental Health Journal, 41, 67–75.Google Scholar
Masi, G., Toni, C., Perugi, G., Mucci, M., Millepiedi, S., & Akiskal, H. S. (2001). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents with bipolar disorder: A neglected comorbidity. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 46, 797–802.Google Scholar
Maughan, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2002). Impact of child maltreatment and interadult violence on children's emotion regulation abilities and socioemotional adjustment. Child Development, 73, 1525–1542.Google Scholar
McElroy, S. L., Altshuler, L. L., Suppes, T., Keck, P. E., Frye, M. A., Denicoff, K. D., et al. (2001). Axis I psychiatric comorbidity and its relationship to historical illness variables in 288 patients with bipolar disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 420–6.Google Scholar
Melnick, S. M., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2000). Emotion regulation and parenting in AD/HD and comparison boys: Linkages with social behaviors and peer preference. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 73–86.Google Scholar
Mendlewicz, J. (1988). Population and family studies in depression and mania. British Journal of Psychiatry, 153(Suppl. 3), 16–25.Google Scholar
Meyer, S. E., Bearden, C. E., Lux, S. R., Gordon, J. L., Johnson, J. K., O'Brien, M. P., et al. (2005). The psychosis prodrome in adolescent patients viewed through the lens of DSM-IV. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 15, 434–451.Google Scholar
Meyer, S. E., Carlson, G. A., Wiggs, E. A., Ronsaville, D. S., Martinez, P. E., Klimes-Dougan, B., et al. (2006). Long-term outcomes of youth who manifest the CBCL mania “proxy” during childhood and/or adolescence: Findings from the NIMH high-risk study. Presented at the NIMH Pediatric Bipolar Conference, Chicago.
Mick, E., Biederman, J., Pandina, G., & Faraone, S. V. (2003). A preliminary meta-analysis of the Child Behavior Checklist in pediatric bipolar disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 53, 1021–1027.Google Scholar
Mick, E., Spencer, T., Wozniak, J., & Biederman, J. (2005). Heterogeneity of irritability in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder subjects with and without mood disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 576–582.Google Scholar
Milberger, S., Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Murphy, J., & Tsuang, M. T. (1995). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and comorbid disorders: Issues of overlapping symptoms. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 1793–1799.Google Scholar
Murray, R. M., Sham, P., van Os, J., Zanelli, J., Cannon, M., & McDonald, C. (2004). A developmental model for similarities and dissimilarities between schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Schizophrenia Research, 71, 405–416.Google Scholar
Myles, B. S., & Southwick, J. (2005). Asperger syndrome and difficult moments. Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism Asperger Publishing Co.
Nemeroff, C. B. (2004). Neurobiological consequences of childhood trauma. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65(Suppl. 1), 18–28.Google Scholar
Neria, Y., Bromet, E. J., Carlson, G. A., & Naz, B. (2005). Assaultive trauma and illness course in psychotic bipolar disorder: Findings from the Suffolk County Mental Health Project. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 111, 380–383.Google Scholar
Nicolson, R., Lenane, M., Brookner, F., Gochman, P., Kumra, S., Spechler, L., et al. (2001). Children and adolescents with psychotic disorder not otherwise specified: A 2- to 8-year follow-up study. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 42, 319–325.Google Scholar
Nierenberg, A. A., Miyahara, S., Spencer, T., Wisniewski, S. R., Otto, M. W., Simon, N., et al. (2005). Clinical and diagnostic implications of lifetime attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder comorbidity in adults with bipolar disorder: Data from the first 1000 STEP-BD participants. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1467–1473.Google Scholar
Pavuluri, M. N., Birmaher, B., & Naylor, M. W. (2005). Pediatric bipolar disorder: A review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 846–871.Google Scholar
Pavuluri, M. N., Herbener, E. S., & Sweeney, J. A. (2004). Psychotic symptoms in pediatric bipolar disorder Journal of Affective Disorders, 80, 19–28.Google Scholar
Perlis, R. H., Smollera, J. W., Fava, M., Rosenbaum, J. F., Nierenberg, A. A., & Sachs, G. S. (2004). The prevalence and clinical correlates of anger attacks during depressive episodes in bipolar disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 79, 291–295.Google Scholar
Perugi, G., Akiskal, H. S., Toni, C., Simonini, E., & Gemignani, A. (2001). The temporal relationship between anxiety disorders and (hypo)mania: A retrospective examination of 63 panic, social phobic and obsessive-compulsive patients with comorbid bipolar disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 67, 199–206.Google Scholar
Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2000). Developing mechanisms of self-regulation. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 427–441.Google Scholar
Post, R. M. (1992). Transduction of psychosocial stress into the neurobiology of recurrent affective disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 999–1010.Google Scholar
Rachid, F., Bertschy, G., Bondolfi, G., & Aubry, J. M. (2004). Possible induction of mania or hypomania by atypical antipsychotics: An updated review of reported cases. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 65, 1537–1545.Google Scholar
Rosen, L. N., Rosenthal, N. E., Van Dusen, P. H., Dunner, D. L., & Fieve, R. R. (1983). Age at onset and number of psychotic symptoms in bipolar I and schizoaffective disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 1523–1524.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Posner, M. I. (2005). Genes and experience in the development of executive attention and effortful control. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 109, 101–108.Google Scholar
Rueda, M. R., Posner, M. I., & Rothbart, M. K. (2005). The development of executive attention: Contributions to the emergence of self-regulation. Developmental Neuropsychology, 28, 573–594.Google Scholar
Runyon, M. K., Faust, J., & Orvaschel, H. (2002). Differential symptom pattern of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in maltreated children with and without concurrent depression. Child Abuse and Neglect, 26, 39–53.Google Scholar
Sachs, G. S., Baldassano, C. F., Truman, C. J., & Guille, C. (2000). Comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with early- and late-onset bipolar disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 466–488.Google Scholar
Safer, D. J., & Zito, J. M. (2006). Treatment-emergent adverse events from selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors by age group: Children versus adolescents. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 16, 159–169.Google Scholar
Schreier, H. A. (1999). Hallucinations in nonpsychotic children: More common than we think? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 623–625.Google Scholar
Schürhoff, F., Bellivier, F., Jouvent, R., Mouren-Siméoni, M.-C., Bouvard, M., Allilaire, J.-F., et al. (2000). Early and late onset bipolar disorders: Two different forms of manic-depressive illness? Journal of Affective Disorders, 58, 215–221.Google Scholar
Schwartz, J. E., Fennig, S., Tanenberg-Karant, M., Carlson, G., Craig, T., Galambos, N., et al. (2000). Congruence of diagnoses 2 years after a first-admission diagnosis of psychosis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 593–596.Google Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Lacourse, E., & Nagin, D. S. (2005). Developmental trajectories of conduct problems and hyperactivity from ages 2 to 10. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 931–942.Google Scholar
Sigurdsson, E., Fombonne, E., Sayal, K., & Checkley, S. (1999). Neurodevelopmental antecedents of early-onset bipolar affective disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 174, 121–127.Google Scholar
Simon, N. M., Otto, M. W., Wisniewski, S. R., Fossey, M., Sagduyu, K., Frank, E., et al. (2004). Anxiety disorder comorbidity in bipolar disorder patients: Data from the first 500 participants in the systematic treatment enhancement program for bipolar disorder (STEP-BD). American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 2222–2229.Google Scholar
Sprafkin, J., Kelly, E., & Gadow, K. D. (1987). Reality perceptions of television: A comparison of emotionally disturbed, learning disabled, and nonhandicapped children. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 8, 149–153.Google Scholar
Srinath, S., Janardhan Reddy, Y. C., Girimaji, S. R., Seshadri, S. P., & Subbakrishna, D. K. (1998). A prospective study of bipolar disorder in children and adolescents from India. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 98, 437–442.Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1989). Relationships, self, and individual adaptation. In A. J. Sameroff & R. N. Emde (Eds.), Relationship disturbances in early childhood: A developmental approach (pp. 70–94). New York: Basic Books.
Sroufe, L. A. (1997). Psychopathology as an outcome of development. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 251–268.Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A., & Rutter, M. (1984). The domain of developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 17–29.Google Scholar
Stansbury, K., & Zimmermann, L. K. (1999). Relations among child language skills, maternal socialization of emotion regulation, and child behavior problems. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 30, 121–142.Google Scholar
Stayer, C., Sporn, A., Gogtay, N., Tossell, J. W., Lenane, M., Gochman, P., et al. (2005). Multidimensionally impaired: The good news. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 15, 510–519.Google Scholar
Suveg, C., & Zeman, J. (2004). Emotion regulation in children with anxiety disorders. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 750–759.Google Scholar
Taylor, M. A., & Abrams, R. (1973). The phenomenology of mania. A new look at some old patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 29, 520–522.Google Scholar
Thuppal, M., Carlson, G. A., Sprafkin, J., & Gadow, K. D. (2002). Correspondence between adolescent report, parent report, and teacher report of manic symptoms. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 12, 27–35.Google Scholar
Tillman, R., & Geller, B. (2003). Definitions of rapid, ultrarapid, and ultradian cycling and of episode duration in pediatric and adult bipolar disorders: A proposal to distinguish episodes from cycles. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 13, 267–271.Google Scholar
Tillman, R., Geller, B., Bolhofner, K., Craney, J. L., Williams, M., & Zimerman, B. (2003). Ages of onset and rates of syndromal and subsyndromal comorbid DSM-IV diagnoses in a prepubertal and early adolescent bipolar disorder phenotype. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42, 1486–1493.Google Scholar
Tillman, R., Geller, B., Craney, J. L., Bolhofner, K., Williams, M., & Zimerman, B. (2004). Relationship of parent and child informants to prevalence of mania symptoms in children with a prepubertal and early adolescent bipolar disorder phenotype. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 1278–12784.Google Scholar
Toth, S. L., Cicchetti, D., MacFie, J., Maughan, A., & VanMeenen, K. (2000). Narrative representations of caregivers and self in maltreated preschoolers. Attachment and Human Development, 2, 271–305.Google Scholar
Towbin, K. E., Pradella, A., Gorrindo, T., Pine, D. S., & Leibenluft, E. (2005). Autism spectrum traits in children with mood and anxiety disorders. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 15, 452–464.Google Scholar
van der Gaag, R. J., Caplan, R., Engeland, H., Loman, F., & Buitelaar, J. K. (2005). A controlled study of formal thought disorder in children with autism and multiple complex developmental disorders. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 15, 465–476.Google Scholar
van Os, J., Hanssen, M., Bijl, R. V., & Ravelli, A. (2000). Strauss (1969) revisited: A psychosis continuum in the general population? Schizophrenia Research, 45, 11–20.Google Scholar
van Os, J., Jones, P., Lewis, G., Wadsworth, M., & Murray, R. (1997). Developmental precursors of affective illness in a general population birth cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 625–631.Google Scholar
van Praag, H. M. (1993). Make-believes in psychiatry: Or the perils of progress. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Vondra, J. I., Barnett, D., & Cicchetti, D. (1990). Self-concept, motivation, and competence among preschoolers from maltreating and comparison families. Child Abuse and Neglect, 14, 525–540.Google Scholar
Whalen, C. K., Henker, B., Jamner, L. D., Ishikawa, S. S., Floro, J. N., Swindle, R., et al. (2006). Toward mapping daily challenges of living with ADHD: Maternal and child perspectives using electronic diaries. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 4, 1–16.Google Scholar
Winokur, G., Clayton, P. J., & Reich, T. (1969). Manic-depressive illness. St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
Woolley, J. D., Boerger, E. A., & Markman, A. B. (2004). A visit from the Candy Witch: Factors influencing young children's belief in a novel fantastical being. Developmental Science, 7, 456–468.Google Scholar
World Health Organisation. (1992). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders. Geneva: Author.
Wozniak, J., Biederman, J., Kwon, A., Mick, E., Faraone, S., Orlovsky, K., et al. (2005). How cardinal are cardinal symptoms in pediatric bipolar disorder? An examination of clinical correlates. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 583–588.Google Scholar
Young, R. C., Biggs, J. T., Ziegler, V. E., & Meyer, D. A. (1978). A rating scale for mania: reliability, validity and sensitivity. British Journal of Psychiatry, 133, 429–435.Google Scholar
Youngerman, J., & Canino, I. A. (1978). Lithium carbonate use in children and adolescents. A survey of the literature. Archives of General Psychiatry, 35, 216–224.Google Scholar
Youngstrom, E., Meyers, O., Demeter, C., Youngstrom, J., Morello, L., Piiparinen, R., et al. (2005). Comparing diagnostic checklists for pediatric bipolar disorder in academic and community mental health settings. Bipolar Disorders, 7, 507–517.Google Scholar
Zahn-Waxler, C., McKnew, D. H., Cummings, E. M., Davenport, Y. B., & Radke-Yarrow, M. (1984). Problem behaviors and peer interactions of young children with a manic-depressive parent. American Journal of Psychiatry, 141, 236–240.Google Scholar
Zammit, S., Allebeck, P., David, A. S., Dalman, C., Hemmingsson, T., Lundberg, I., et al. (2004). A longitudinal study of premorbid IQ score and risk of developing schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, severe depression, and other nonaffective psychoses. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 354–360.Google Scholar
Zimmermann, L. K., & Stansbury, K. (2003). The influence of temperamental reactivity and stiuational context on the emotion-regulatory abilities of 3-year-old children. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 164, 389–409.Google Scholar