Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dk4vv Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T07:52:16.081Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Prefrontal cortex and amygdala anatomy in youth with persistent levels of harsh parenting practices and subclinical anxiety symptoms over time during childhood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 March 2021

Sabrina Suffren Open the ORCID record for Sabrina Suffren [Opens in a new window] ,
Valérie La Buissonnière-Ariza Open the ORCID record for Valérie La Buissonnière-Ariza [Opens in a new window] ,
Alan Tucholka ,
Marouane Nassim ,
Jean R. Séguin ,
Michel Boivin ,
Manpreet Kaur Singh ,
Lara C. Foland-Ross ,
Franco Lepore  and
Ian H. Gotlib
...Show all authors
Sabrina Suffren*
Affiliation:
Research Center, Sainte-Justine Hospital, University of Montreal, Canada Research Center in Neuropsychology and Cognition, University of Montreal, Canada Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Canada Department of Psychology, University of Quebec in Trois-Rivières, Canada Research Center, Hôpital en santé mentale Albert-Prévost, CIUSSS du Nord-de-l'Ile-de-Montreal, Canada Centre de Recherche Universitaire sur les Jeunes et les Familles (CRUJeF), Québec, Canada
Valérie La Buissonnière-Ariza
Affiliation:
Research Center, Sainte-Justine Hospital, University of Montreal, Canada Research Center in Neuropsychology and Cognition, University of Montreal, Canada Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Canada
Alan Tucholka
Affiliation:
Research Center, Sainte-Justine Hospital, University of Montreal, Canada Research Center in Neuropsychology and Cognition, University of Montreal, Canada
Marouane Nassim
Affiliation:
Research Center, Sainte-Justine Hospital, University of Montreal, Canada
Jean R. Séguin
Affiliation:
Research Center, Sainte-Justine Hospital, University of Montreal, Canada Research Group on Children's Psychosocial Maladjustment, University of Montreal, Canada Department of Psychiatry and Addictology, University of Montreal, Canada
Michel Boivin
Affiliation:
Research Group on Children's Psychosocial Maladjustment, University of Montreal, Canada Department of Psychology, Laval University, Quebec City, Canada
Manpreet Kaur Singh
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
Lara C. Foland-Ross
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
Franco Lepore
Affiliation:
Research Center, Sainte-Justine Hospital, University of Montreal, Canada Research Center in Neuropsychology and Cognition, University of Montreal, Canada Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Canada
Ian H. Gotlib
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
Richard E. Tremblay
Affiliation:
Research Center, Sainte-Justine Hospital, University of Montreal, Canada Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Canada Research Group on Children's Psychosocial Maladjustment, University of Montreal, Canada Department of Pediatrics, University of Montreal, Canada School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Sport Sciences, University College Dublin, Ireland
Françoise S. Maheu
Affiliation:
Research Center, Sainte-Justine Hospital, University of Montreal, Canada
*
Author for Correspondence: Dr. Sabrina Suffren, PhD Research Centre, Ste-Justine University Hospital, 3175 Côte Ste-Catherine, Montréal, Québec, H3T 1C5, Canada; E-mail: sabrina.suffren@gmail.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Childhood adversity and anxiety have been associated with increased risk for internalizing disorders later in life and with a range of brain structural abnormalities. However, few studies have examined the link between harsh parenting practices and brain anatomy, outside of severe maltreatment or psychopathology. Moreover, to our knowledge, there has been no research on parenting and subclinical anxiety symptoms which remain persistent over time during childhood (i.e., between 2.5 and 9 years old). Here, we examined data in 94 youth, divided into four cells based on their levels of coercive parenting (high / low) and of anxiety (high / low) between 2.5 and 9 years old. Anatomical images were analyzed using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and FreeSurfer. Smaller gray matter volumes in the prefrontal cortex regions and in the amygdala were observed in youth with high versus low levels of harsh parenting over time. In addition, we observed significant interaction effects between parenting practices and subclinical anxiety symptoms in rostral anterior cingulate cortical thickness and in amygdala volume. These youth should be followed further in time to identify which youth will or will not go on to develop an anxiety disorder, and to understand factors associated with the development of sustained anxiety psychopathology.

Keywords

anxietyFreeSurferinternalized disordersparental practicesVBM
Type
Regular Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 34 , Issue 3 , August 2022 , pp. 957 - 968
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M. (1991). Child behavior checklist. Burlington, VT: Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont.Google Scholar
Ashburner, J. (2007). A fast diffeomorphic image registration algorithm. NeuroImage, 38, 95–113. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.07.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashburner, J. (2009). Computational anatomy with the SPM software. Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 27, 1163–1174. doi:10.1016/j.mri.2009.01.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashburner, J., & Friston, K. J. (2000). Voxel-based morphometry -the methods. NeuroImage, 11, 805–821. doi:10.1006/nimg.2000.0582CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashburner, J., & Friston, K. J. (2005). Unified segmentation. NeuroImage, 26, 839–851. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.02.018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baker, L., Williams, L., Korgaonkar, M., Cohen, R., Heaps, J., & Paul, R. (2012). Impact of early versus late childhood early life stress on brain morphometrics. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 1–8. doi:10.1007/s11682-012-9215-yGoogle Scholar
Boivin, M., Pérusse, D., Dionne, G., Saysset, V., Zoccolillo, M., Tarabulsy, G. M., … Tremblay, R. E. (2005). The genetic-environmental etiology of parents’ perceptions and self-assessed behaviours toward their 5-month-old infants in a large twin and singleton sample. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 612–630. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00375.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bongers, I. L., Koot, H. M., Van Der Ende, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2003). The normative development of child and adolesecent problem behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112(2), 179–192. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843x.112.2.179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bookstein, F. L. (2001). Voxel-based morphometry should not be used with imperfectly registered images. NeuroImage, 14, 1454–1462. doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.0770CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyle, M. H., Jenkins, J. M., Georgiades, K., Cairney, J., Duku, E., & Racine, Y. (2004). Differential-maternal parenting behavior: Estimating within-and between-family effects on children. Child Development, 75, 1457–1476. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00751.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bremner, J. D., Vythilingam, M., Vermetten, E., Southwick, S. M., McGlashan, T., Nazeer, A., … Charney, D. S. (2003). MRI and PET study of deficits in hippocampal structure and function in women with childhood sexual abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 924–932. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.160.5.924CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, A. M., & Whiteside, S. P. (2008). Relations among perceived parental rearing behaviors, attachment style, and worry in anxious children. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 263–272. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.02.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burgaleta, M., Johnson, W., Waber, D. P., Colom, R., & Karama, S. (2014). Cognitive ability changes and dynamics of cortical thickness development in healthy children and adolescents. NeuroImage, 84, 810–819. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.09.038CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Casey, B. J., Jones, R. M., & Somerville, L. H. (2011). Braking and accelerating of the adolescent brain. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 21–33. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00712.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J. (1973). Eta-squared and partial eta-squared in fixed factor ANOVA designs. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 33, 107–112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Côté, S. M., Boivin, M., Liu, X., Nagin, D. S., Zoccolillo, M, & Tremblay, R. E.. (2009). Depression and anxiety symptoms: Onset, developmental course and risk factors during early childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(10), 1201–1208. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02099.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Bellis, M. D., Casey, B. J., Dahl, R. E., Birmaher, B., Williamson, D. E., Thomas, K. M., … Ryan, N. D. (2000). A pilot study of amygdala volumes in pediatric generalized anxiety disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 51–57. doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(00)00835-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Bellis, M. D., Keshavan, M. S., Shifflett, H., Iyengar, S., Dahl, R. E., Axelson, D. A., … Ryan, N. D. (2002). Superior temporal gyrus volumes in pediatric generalized anxiety disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 553–562. doi:10.1016/S0006-3223(01)01375-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Brito, S. A., Viding, E., Sebastian, C. L., Kelly, P. A., Mechelli, A., Maris, H., & McCrory, E. J. (2013). Reduced orbitofrontal and temporal grey matter in a community sample of maltreated children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 54, 105–112. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02597.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ducharme, S., Albaugh, M. D., Hudziak, J. J., Botteron, K. N., Nguyen, T.-V., Truong, C., … Karama, S. (2013). Anxious/depressed symptoms are linked to right ventromedial prefrontal cortical thickness maturation in healthy children and young adults. Cerebral Cortex, 24, 2941–2950. doi:10.1093/cercor/bht151CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duke, P. M., Litt, I. F., & Gross, R. T. (1980). Adolescents’ self-assessment of sexual maturation. Pediatrics, 66, 918–920.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1981). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised (PPVT): Manual for Forms L and M. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar
Edmiston, E. E., Wang, F., Mazure, C. M., Guiney, J., Sinha, R., Mayes, L. C., & Blumberg, H. P. (2011). Corticostriatal-limbic gray matter morphology in adolescents with self-reported exposure to childhood maltreatment. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 165, 1069–1077. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.565CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavioral Research Methods, 39, 175–191.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fischl, B. (2012). FreeSurfer. NeuroImage, 62, 774–781. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.01.021CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fischl, B., & Dale, A. M. (2000). Measuring the thickness of the human cerebral cortex from magnetic resonance images. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97, 11050–11055. doi:10.1073/pnas.200033797CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fischl, B., Salat, D. H., Busa, E., Albert, M., Dieterich, M., Haselgrove, C., … Dale, A. M. (2002). Whole brain segmentation: Automated labeling of neuroanatomical structures in the human brain. Neuron, 33, 341–355. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(02)00569-XCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forget-Dubois, N., Boivin, M., Dionne, G., Pierce, T., Tremblay, R. E., & Pérusse, D. (2007). A longitudinal twin study of the genetic and environmental etiology of maternal hostile-reactive behavior during infancy and toddlerhood.. Infant Behavior and Development, 30(3), 453–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2006.12.005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilbertson, M. W., Shenton, M. E., Ciszewski, A., Kasai, K., Lasko, N. B., Orr, S. P., & Pitman, R. K. (2002). Smaller hippocampal volume predicts pathologic vulnerability to psychological trauma. Nature Neuroscience, 5, 1242–1247. doi:10.1038/nn958CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gordo, L., Oliver-Roig, A., Martínez-Pampliega, A., Elejalde, L. I., Fernández-Alcantara, M., & Richart-Martínez, M. (2018). Parental perception of child vulnerability and parental competence: The role of postnatal depression and parental stress in fathers and mothers. PLoS ONE, 13, 1–13. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0202894CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grodin, E. N., Lin, H., Durkee, C. A., Hommer, D. W., & Momenan, R. (2013). Deficits in cortical, diencephalic and midbrain gray matter in alcoholism measured by VBM: Effects of co-morbid substance abuse. NeuroImage: Clinical, 2, 469–476. doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2013.03.013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanson, J. L., Chung, M. K., Avants, B. B., Shirtcliff, E. A., Gee, J. C., Davidson, R. J., & Pollak, S. D. (2010). Early stress is associated with alterations in the orbitofrontal cortex: A tensor-based morphometry investigation of brain structure and behavioral risk. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 7466–7472. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0859-10.2010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanson, J. L., Hair, N., Shen, D. G., Shi, F., Gilmore, J. H., Wolfe, B. L., & Pollak, S. D. (2013). Family poverty affects the rate of human infant brain growth. PLoS ONE, 8, e80954. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080954CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanson, J. L., Nacewicz, B. M., Sutterer, M. J., Cayo, A. A., Schaefer, S. M., Rudolph, K. D., … Davidson, R. J. (2015). Behavioral problems after early life stress: Contributions of the hippocampus and amygdala. Biological Psychiatry, 77, 314–323. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.04.020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hart, H., & Rubia, K. (2012). Neuroimaging of child abuse: A critical review. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 1–24. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00052CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hirshfeld-Becker, D. R., Micco, J. A., Simoes, N. A., & Henin, A. (2008). High risk studies and developmental antecedents of anxiety disorders. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part C: Seminars in Medical Genetics, 148C, 99–117. doi:10.1002/ajmg.c.30170CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hodel, A. S., Hunt, R. H., Cowell, R. A., Van Den Heuvel, S. E., Gunnar, M. R., & Thomas, K. M. (2015). Duration of early adversity and structural brain development in post-institutionalized adolescents. NeuroImage, 105, 112–119. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.10.020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hollingshead, A. B., & Redlich, F. C. (1958). Social class and mental illness: Community study. John Wiley & Sons Inc. doi:10.1037/10645-000CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jetté, M., & Des Groseilliers, L. (2000). Survey description and methodology of the Longitudinal Study of Child Development in Québec (ÉLDEQ 1998-2002) Québec, Canada: Institut de la statistique du Québec.Google Scholar
Jetté, M., Desrosiers, H., & Tremblay, R. E. (1998). “In 2001… I'll be 5 years old” - Survey of 5 months old infants: Preliminary report from the Québec Longitudinal Study of Childhood Development. Montréal, QC, CANADA: Ministère de la Santé et des Services sociaux, Gouvernement du Québec.Google Scholar
Jones, S. L., Dufoix, R., Laplante, D. P., Elgbeili, G., Patel, R., Chakravarty, M., … Pruessner, J. C. (2019). Larger amygdala volume mediates the association between prenatal maternal stress and higher levels of externalizing behaviors: Sex specific effects in project ice storm. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13(144), 1–17. doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2019.00144.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, J. E., Jackson, D. C., Chambers, K. L., Dabbs, K., Hsu, D. A., Stafstrom, C. E., … Hermann, B. P. (2015). Children with epilepsy and anxiety: Subcortical and cortical differences. Epilepsia, 56, 283–290. doi:10.1111/epi.12832CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Juranek, J., Filipek, P. A., Berenji, G. R., Modahl, C., Osann, K., & Spence, M. A. (2006). Association between amygdala volume and anxiety level: Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study in autistic children. Journal of Child Neurology, 21, 1051–1058. doi:10.1177/7010.2006.00237CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Rao, U. M. A., Flynn, C., Moreci, P., … Ryan, N. (1997). Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for school-age children-Present and Lifetime version (K-SADS-PL): Initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 980–988. doi:10.1097/00004583-199707000-00021CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kelly, P. A., Viding, E., Wallace, G. L., Schaer, M., De Brito, S. A., Robustelli, B., & Mccrory, E. J. (2013). Cortical thickness, surface area, and gyrification abnormalities in children exposed to maltreatment: Neural markers of vulnerability? Biological Psychiatry, 74, 845–852. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.06.020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kitayama, N., Quinn, S., & Bremner, J. D. (2006). Smaller volume of anterior cingulate cortex in abuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 90, 171–174. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2005.11.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kolb, B., Harker, A., Mychasiuk, R., de Melo, S. R., & Gibb, R. (2017). Stress and prefrontal cortical plasticity in the developing brain. Cognitive Development, 42, 15–26. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2017.01.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koolschijn, P., & Crone, E. A. (2013). Sex differences and structural brain maturation from childhood to early adulthood. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 5, 106–118. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2013.02.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Korgaonkar, M. S., Antees, C., Williams, L. M., Gatt, J. M., Bryant, R. A., Cohen, R., … Grieve, S. M. (2013). Early exposure to traumatic stressors impairs emotional brain circuitry. PLoS ONE, 8, e75524. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0075524CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
La Buissonnière-Ariza, V., Séguin, J. R., Nassim, M., Boivin, M., Pine, D. S., Lepore, F., … Maheu, F. S. (2019). Chronic harsh parenting and anxiety associations with fear circuitry function in healthy adolescents: A preliminary study. Biological Psychology. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2019.03.019CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lansford, J. E., Criss, M. M., Dodge, K. A., Shaw, D. S., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (2009). Trajectories of physical discipline: Early childhood antecedents and developmental outcomes. Child Development, 80, 1385–1402. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01340.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liao, M., Yang, F., Zhang, Y., He, Z., Song, M., Jiang, T., … Li, L. (2013). Childhood maltreatment is associated with larger left thalamic gray matter volume in adolescents with generalized anxiety disorder. PLoS ONE, 8, 8. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0071898Google ScholarPubMed
Liao, M., Yang, F., Zhang, Y., He, Z., Su, L., & Li, L. (2014). Lack of gender effects on gray matter volumes in adolescent generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 155, 278–282. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2013.10.049CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 434–445. doi:10.1038/nrn2639CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lupien, S. J., Parent, S., Evans, A. C., Tremblay, R. E., Zelazo, P. D., Corbo, V., … Séguin, J. R. (2011). Larger amygdala but no change in hippocampal volume in 10-year-old children exposed to maternal depressive symptomatology since birth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 14324–14329. doi:10.1073/pnas.1105371108CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, A., & Gosselin, P. (2012). Propriétés psychométriques de l'adaptation francophone d'une mesure de symptômes des troubles anxieux auprès d'enfants et d'adolescents (SCARED-R). [Psychometric properties of the French adaptation of a measure for symptoms of anxiety disorders among children. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement, 44, 70–76. doi:10.1037/a0023103CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCrory, E., De Brito, S. A., & Viding, E. (2011). The impact of childhood maltreatment: A review of neurobiological and genetic factors. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 2, doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2011.00048CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCrory, E., De Brito, S. A., & Viding, E. (2012). The link between child abuse and psychopathology: A review of neurobiological and genetic research. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 105, 151–156. doi:10.1258/jrsm.2011.110222CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., Winter, W., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H., & Nelson, C. A. (2014). Widespread reductions in cortical thickness following severe early-life deprivation: A neurodevelopmental pathway to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 76, 629–638. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.08.016CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLeod, B. D., Wood, J. J., & Weisz, J. R. (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood anxiety: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 155–172. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.09.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merz, E. C., Maskus, E. A., Melvin, S. A., He, X., & Noble, K. G. (2019). Parental punitive discipline and children's depressive symptoms: Associations with striatal volume. Developmental Psychobiology, 61, 953–961. doi:10.1002/dev.21859CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milham, M. P., Nugent, A. C., Drevets, W. C., Dickstein, D. S., Leibenluft, E., Ernst, M., … Pine, D. S. (2005). Selective reduction in amygdala volume in pediatric anxiety disorders: A voxel-based morphometry investigation. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 961–966. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.038CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, D. C., & Salkind, N. J. (2002). Handbook of research design and social measurement (6th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mills, K. L., Goddings, A. L., Clasen, L. S., Giedd, J. N., & Blakemore, S. J. (2014). The developmental mismatch in structural brain maturation during adolescence. Developmental Neuroscience, 36, 147–160. doi:10.1159/000362328CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morey, R. A., Petty, C. M., Xu, Y., Pannu Hayes, J., Wagner Ii, H. R., Lewis, D. V., … McCarthy, G. (2009). A comparison of automated segmentation and manual tracing for quantifying hippocampal and amygdala volumes. NeuroImage, 45, 855–866. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.12.033CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, N., & Udry, J. R. (1980). Validation of a self-administered instrument to assess stage of adolescent development. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 9, 271–280. doi:10.1007/bf02088471CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mueller, S. C., Aouidad, A., Gorodetsky, E., Goldman, D., Pine, D. S., & Ernst, M. (2013). Gray matter volume in adolescent anxiety: An impact of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met polymorphism? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 52, 184–195. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.11.016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nagin, D. S. (2005). Group-based modeling of development over the life course. Cambridge, MA: Havard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pierce, T., Boivin, M., Frenette, É, Forget-Dubois, N., Dionne, G., & Tremblay, R. E. (2010). Maternal self-efficacy and hostile-reactive parenting from infancy to toddlerhood. Infant Behavior and Development, 33, 149–158. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2009.12.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Qin, S., Young, C. B., Duan, X., Chen, T., Supekar, K., & Menon, V. (2014). Amygdala subregional structure and intrinsic functional connectivity predicts individual differences in anxiety during early childhood. Biological Psychiatry, 75, 892–900. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.10.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raznahan, A., Shaw, P., Lalonde, F., Stockman, M., Wallace, G. L., Greenstein, D., … Giedd, J. N. (2011). How does your cortex grow? The Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 7174–7177. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0054-11.2011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
StatisticsCanada (1995). Overview of the Canadian National Longitudinal Study of Children and Youth (NLSCY) survey instruments for 1994-95 data collection, cycle 1. Ottawa, CA.Google Scholar
Suffren, S., Chauret, M., Nassim, M., Lepore, F., & Maheu, F. (2019). On a continuum to anxiety disorders: Adolescents at parental risk for anxiety show smaller rostral anterior cingulate cortex and insula thickness. Journal of Affective Disorders, 248, 34–41. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2019.01.028CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Teicher, M. H., & Samson, J. A. (2013). Childhood maltreatment and psychopathology: A case for ecophenotypic variants as clinically and neurobiologically distinct subtypes. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170, 1114–1133. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12070957CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Welborn, B. L., Papademetris, X., Reis, D. L., Rajeevan, N., Bloise, S. M., & Gray, J. R. (2009). Variation in orbitofrontal cortex volume: Relation to sex, emotion regulation and affect. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 4, 328–339. doi:10.1093/scan/nsp028CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weniger, G., Lange, C., Sachsse, U., & Irle, E. (2008). Amygdala and hippocampal volumes and cognition in adult survivors of childhood abuse with dissociative disorders. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 118, 281–290. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2008.01246.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whittle, S., Dennison, M., Vijayakumar, N., Simmons, J. G., Yücel, M., Lubman, D. I., … Allen, N. B. (2013). Childhood maltreatment and psychopathology affect brain development during adolescence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 52, 940–951. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.06.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whittle, S., Simmons, J. G., Dennison, M., Vijayakumar, N., Schwartz, O., Yap, M. B. H., … Allen, N. B. (2014). Positive parenting predicts the development of adolescent brain structure: A longitudinal study. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 8, 7–17. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2013.10.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wierenga, L. M., Langen, M., Oranje, B., & Durston, S. (2014). Unique developmental trajectories of cortical thickness and surface area. NeuroImage, 87, 120–126. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.11.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Windham, A. M., Rosenberg, L., Fuddy, L., McFarlane, E., Sia, C., & Duggan, A. K. (2004). Risk of mother-reported child abuse in the first 3 years of life. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28, 645–667. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.01.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wood, J. J., McLeod, B. D., Sigman, M., Hwang, W.-C., & Chu, B. C. (2003). Parenting and childhood anxiety: Theory, empirical findings, and future directions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 44, 134–151. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00106CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yan, X. (2012). Amygdala, childhood adversity and psychiatric disorders. The Amygdala-A Discrete Multitasking Manager. Available from: http://Www.Intechopen.Com/Books/the-Amygdala-a-Discrete-Multitasking-Manager/Amygdala-Childhood-Adversity-and-Psychiatric-Disorders.Google Scholar