Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-94fs2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-10T07:01:45.244Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A process model linking physiological arousal and fear recognition to aggression via guilt in middle childhood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 February 2020

Tyler Colasante Open the ORCID record for Tyler Colasante [Opens in a new window] ,
Marc Jambon ,
Xiaoqing Gao  and
Tina Malti
Tyler Colasante*
Affiliation:
Centre for Child Development, Mental Health, and Policy, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Marc Jambon
Affiliation:
Centre for Child Development, Mental Health, and Policy, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Xiaoqing Gao
Affiliation:
Center for Psychological Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province, China
Tina Malti
Affiliation:
Centre for Child Development, Mental Health, and Policy, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
*
Author for Correspondence: Tyler Colasante, Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, 3359 Mississauga Rd., Mississauga, ONL5L 1C6; Canada. E-mail: tyler.colasante@mail.utoronto.ca.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Aggression coincides with emotional underarousal in childhood, but we still lack an understanding of how underarousal contributes to aggression. With an ethnically diverse sample of 8-year-olds (N = 150), we tested whether physiological underarousal and lower fear recognition were indirectly associated with heightened aggression through dampened guilt feelings. Caregivers rated children's aggressive behavior. We assessed children's skin conductance (SC) and respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) while they imagined transgressing norms and measured their fear recognition with a facial morph task. Children reported guilt or lack thereof after hypothetically transgressing. The interaction of decreasing SC and increasing RSA (i.e., physiological underarousal) and poor fear recognition were indirectly associated with higher aggression through their associations with lower guilt. Emotional underarousal may contribute to aggression by disrupting the normative development of guilt. We discuss strategies to improve social-emotional acuity and reduce aggression in children with blunted physiological arousal and fear recognition.

Keywords

aggressionchildhoodfear recognitionguiltrespiratory sinus arrhythmiaskin conductance
Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 33 , Issue 1 , February 2021 , pp. 109 - 121
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adolphs, R., Gosselin, F., Buchanan, T. W., Tranel, D., Schyns, P., & Damasio, A. R. (2005). A mechanism for impaired fear recognition after amygdala damage. Nature, 433, 68–72. doi:10.1038/nature03086CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arsenio, W. (2014). Moral emotion attributions and aggression. In Killen, M. & Smetana, J. (Eds.), Handbook of moral development (2nd ed., pp. 235–255). New York, NY: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Berntson, G. G., Cacioppo, J. T., & Quigley, K. S. (1991). Autonomic determinism: The modes of autonomic control, the doctrine of autonomic space, and the laws of autonomic constraint. Psychological Review, 98, 459–487. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.98.4.459CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, R. J. R. (1997). Moral reasoning and the child with psychopathic tendencies. Personality and Individual Differences, 22, 731–739. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(96)00249-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, R. J. R. (1999). Responsiveness to distress cues in the child with psychopathic tendencies. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 135–145. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00231-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blair, R. J., Budhani, S., Colledge, E., & Scott, S. (2005). Deafness to fear in boys with psychopathic tendencies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 327–336. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00356.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, R. J. R., Colledge, E., Murray, L., & Mitchell, D. G. V. (2001). A selective impairment in the processing of sad and fearful expressions in children with psychopathic tendencies. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 491–498. doi:10.1023/A:1012225108281CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, R. J. R., Jones, L., Clark, F., & Smith, M. (1997). The psychopathic individual: A lack of responsiveness to distress cues? Psychophysiology, 34, 192–198. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1997.tb02131.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blair, R. J. R., Monson, J., & Frederickson, N. (2001). Moral reasoning and conduct problems in children with emotional and behavioural difficulties. Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 799–811. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00181-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (1993). Developmental psychopathology: Reactions, reflections, projections. Developmental Review, 13, 471–502. doi:10.1006/drev.1993.1021CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2003). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioural sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Colasante, T., Zuffianò, A., Bae, N. Y., & Malti, T. (2014). Inhibitory control and moral emotions: Relations to reparation in early and middle childhood. The Journal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on Human Development, 175, 511–527. doi:10.1080/00221325.2014.976535CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colasante, T., Zuffianò, A., Haley, D. W., & Malti, T. (2018). Children's autonomic nervous system activity while transgressing: Relations to guilt feelings and aggression. Developmental Psychology, 54, 1621–1633. doi:10.1037/dev0000500CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crick, N. R. (1996). The role of overt aggression, relational aggression, and prosocial behavior in the prediction of children's future social adjustment. Child Development, 67, 2317–2327. doi:10.2307/1131625CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dadds, M. R., El Masry, Y., Wimalaweera, S., & Guastella, A. J. (2008). Reduced eye gaze explains “fear blindness” in childhood psychopathic traits. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 455–463. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e31816407f1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dadds, M. R., Hawes, D. J., Frost, A. D. J., Vassallo, S., Bunn, P., Hunter, K., & Merz, S. (2009). Learning to ‘talk the talk’: The relationship of psychopathic traits to deficits in empathy across childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 599–606. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02058.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dawson, M. E., Schell, A. M., & Filion, D. L. (2007). The electrodermal system. In Cacioppo, J. T., Tassinary, L. G., & Berntson, G. G. (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (3rd ed., pp. 159–181). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511546396.007Google Scholar
DeLisi, M., Umphress, Z. R., & Vaughn, M. G. (2009). The criminology of the amygdala. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 36, 1241–1252. doi:10.1177/0093854809343119CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Wied, M., van Boxtel, A., Matthys, W., & Meeus, W. (2012). Verbal, facial and autonomic responses to empathy-eliciting film clips by disruptive male adolescents with high versus low callous-unemotional traits. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 211–223. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9557-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dujardin, A., Bosmans, G., De Raedt, R., & Braet, C. (2015). Children's attentional exploration of threatening information as related to trust in maternal support. Developmental Psychology, 51, 1341–1350. doi:10.1037/a0039500CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Schaller, M., Carlo, G., & Miller, P. A. (1991). The relations of parental characteristics and practices to children's vicarious emotional responding. Child Development, 62, 1393–1408. doi:10.2307/1130814CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisner, M.P., & Malti, T. (2015). Aggressive and violent behavior. In Lamb, M. E. (Vol. Ed.) & Lerner, R. M. (Ser. Ed.), Handbook of child psychology and developmental science, Vol. 3: Social, emotional and personality development (7th ed., pp. 795–884). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
El-Sheikh, M., & Erath, S. A. (2011). Family conflict, autonomic nervous system functioning, and child adaptation: State of the science and future directions. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 703–721. doi:10.1017/S0954579411000034CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Sheikh, M., Hinnant, J. B., & Erath, S. (2011). Developmental trajectories of delinquency symptoms in childhood: The role of marital conflict and autonomic nervous system activity. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 16–32. doi:10.1037/a0020626CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Sheikh, M., Kouros, C. D., Erath, S., Cummings, E. M., Keller, P., & Staton, L. (2009). Marital conflict and children's externalizing behavior: Interactions between parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system activity. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 74(1, Serial No. 292), vii–79.Google ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J. (2012). Developmental pathways to conduct disorder: Implications for future directions in research, assessment, and treatment. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 41, 378–389. doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.664815CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frick, P. J., Ray, J. V., Thornton, L. C., & Kahn, R. E. (2014). Annual research review: A developmental psychopathology approach to understanding callous-unemotional traits in children and adolescents with serious conduct problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 532–548. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12152CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frick, P. J., & White, S. F. (2008). Research review: The importance of callous-unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 359–375. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01862.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gao, X., & Mauer, D. (2009). Influence of intensity on children's sensitivity to happy, sad, and fearful facial expressions. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 102, 503–521. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2008.11.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gao, X., & Maurer, D. (2010). A happy story: Developmental changes in children’s sensitivity to facial expressions of varying intensities. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 107, 67–86. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2010.05.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grusec, J. E., Chaparro, M. P., Johnston, M., & Sherman, A. (2013). The development of moral behavior from a socialization perspective. In Killen, M. & Smetana, J. G. (Eds.), Handbook of moral development (2nd ed., pp. 113–134). New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Hastings, P. D., Nuselovici, J. N., Utendale, W. T., Coutya, J., McShane, K. E., & Sullivan, C. (2008). Applying the polyvagal theory to children's emotion regulation: Social context, socialization, and adjustment. Biological Psychology, 79, 299–306. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.07.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoyniak, C. P., Bates, J. E., Petersen, I. T., Yang, C., Darcy, I., & Fontaine, N. M. G. (2019). Diminished neural responses to emotionally valenced facial stimuli: A potential biomarker for unemotional traits in early childhood. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 50, 72–82. doi:10.1007/s10578-018-0821-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hubbard, J. A., Smithmyer, C. M., Ramsden, S. R., Parker, E. H., Flanagan, K. D., Dearing, K. F., … Simons, R. F. (2002). Observational, physiological, and self-report measures of children's anger: Relations to reactive versus proactive aggression. Child Development, 73, 1101–1118. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00460CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jambon, M., & Smetana, J. (2018a). Individual differences in prototypical moral and conventional judgments and children's proactive and reactive aggression. Child Development, 89, 1343–1359. doi:10.1111/cdev.12757CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jambon, M., & Smetana, J. (2018b). Self-reported moral emotions and physical and relational aggression in early childhood: A social domain approach. Child Development. Advance online publication. doi:10.1111/cdev.13174Google Scholar
Jansma, D., Malti, T., Opdenakker, M., & van der Werf, G. (2018). Assessment of anticipated emotions in moral transgressions. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 34, 111–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jusyte, A., Mayer, S. V., Künzel, E., Hautzinger, M., & Schönenberg, M. (2015). Unemotional traits predict early processing deficit for fearful expressions in young violent offenders: An investigation using continuous flash suppression. Psychological Medicine, 45, 285–297. doi:10.1017/S0033291714001287CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahle, S., & Hastings, P. D. (2015). The neurobiology and physiology of emotions: A developmental perspective. In Scott, R. & Kosslyn, S. (Eds.), Emerging trends in the social and behavioral sciences (pp. 1–15). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Keller, P. S., & El-Sheikh, M. (2009). Salivary alpha-amylase as a longitudinal predictor of children's externalizing symptoms: Respiratory sinus arrhythmia as a moderator of effects. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 633–643. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.12.016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kochanska, G., & Murray, K. T. (2000). Mother–child mutually responsive orientation and conscience development: From toddler to early school age. Child Development, 71, 417–431. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00154CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kreibig, S. D. (2010). Autonomic nervous system activity in emotion: A review. Biological Psychology, 84, 394–421. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.03.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lawrence, K., Campbell, R., & Skuse, D. (2015). Age, gender, and puberty influence the development of facial emotion recognition. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, Article 761. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00761CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LeDoux, J. (2003). The emotional brain, fear, and the amygdala. Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology, 23, 727–738. doi:10.1023/A:1025048802629CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Little, T. D., Jones, S. M., Henrich, C. C., & Hawley, P. H. (2003). Disentangling the “whys” from the “whats” of aggressive behaviour. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27, 122–133. doi:10.1080/01650250244000128CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lochman, J. E., Boxmeyer, C. L., Andrade, B., & Muratori, P. (2018). Youth-focused intervention for severe aggression. In Malti, T. & Rubin, K. (Eds.), Handbook of child and adolescent aggression: Emergence, development, and intervention (pp. 318–339). New York, NY: Guilford.Google Scholar
Lorber, M. F. (2004). Psychophysiology of aggression, psychopathy, and conduct problems: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 531–552. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.531CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacKinnon, D. P. (2008). Introduction to statistical mediation analysis. New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Malti, T. (2016). Toward an integrated clinical-developmental model of guilt. Developmental Review, 39, 16–36. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2015.11.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malti, T. (2018). Social-emotional responding task. Unpublished testing materials. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto.Google Scholar
Malti, T., Colasante, T., Zuffianò, A., & de Bruine, M. (2016). The physiological correlates of children's emotions in contexts of moral transgression. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 142, 372–381. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.09.017CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malti, T., Dys, S. P., Colasante, T., & Peplak, J. (2018). Emotions and morality: New developmental perspectives. In Helwig, C. (Ed.), New perspectives on moral development (pp. 55–72). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Malti, T., Gummerum, M., Keller, M., & Buchmann, M. (2009). Children’s moral motivation, sympathy, and prosocial behavior. Child Development, 80, 442–460. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01271.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malti, T., & Krettenauer, T. (2013). The relation of moral emotion attributions to prosocial and antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 84, 397–412. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01851.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malti, T., & Ongley, S. (2014). The development of moral emotions and moral reasoning. In Killen, M. & Smetana, J. (Eds.), Handbook of moral development (2nd ed., pp. 163–183). New York, NY: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Malti, T., Ongley, S. F., Peplak, J., Chaparro, M. P., Buchmann, M., Zuffiano, A., & Cui, L. (2016). Children's sympathy, guilt, and moral reasoning in helping, cooperation, and sharing: A 6-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 87, 1783–1795. doi:10.1111/cdev.12632CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marsh, A. A. (2013). What can we learn about emotion by studying psychopathy? Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, Article 181. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00181CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Marsh, A. A., & Cardinale, E. M. (2014). When psychopathy impairs moral judgments: Neural responses during judgments about causing fear. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 9, 3–11. doi:10.1093/scan/nss097CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McArdle, J. J. (2009). Latent variable modeling of differences and changes with longitudinal data. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 577–605. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163612CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, C. C., Hubbard, J., Morrow, M. T., Barhight, L. R., Lines, M. M., Sallee, M., & Hyde, C. T. (2018). The simultaneous assessment of and relations between children's sympathetic and parasympathetic psychophysiology and their reactive and proactive aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 44, 614–623. doi:10.1002/ab.21786CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray-Close, D., Holterman, L. A., Breslend, N. L., & Sullivan, A. (2017). Psychophysiology of proactive and reactive relational aggression. Biological Psychology, 130, 77–85. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2017.10.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthén, L., & Muthén, B. (1998–2017). Mplus user's guide. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.Google Scholar
Nivette, A. E., Eisner, M., Malti, T., & Ribeaud, D. (2014). Sex differences in aggression among children of low and high gender inequality backgrounds: A comparison of gender role and sexual selection theories. Aggressive Behavior, 40, 451–464. doi:10.1002/ab.21530CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olson, S. L., & Ip, K. I. (2017). Developmental pathways to aggression and violence. In Sturmy, P. (Ed.), The Wiley handbook of violence and aggression (pp. 1–12). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/9781119057574.whbva023Google Scholar
Ongley, S. F., & Malti, T. (2014). The role of moral emotions in the development of children’s sharing behavior. Developmental Psychology, 50, 1148–1159. doi:10.1037/a0035191CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ortiz, J., & Raine, A. (2004). Heart rate level and antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 154–162. doi:10.1097/00004583-200402000-00010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pasalich, D. S., Dadds, M. R., Hawes, D. J., & Brennan, J. (2011). Do callous-unemotional traits moderate the relative importance of parental coercion versus warmth in child conduct problems? An observational study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 1308–1315. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02435.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patrick, C. J. (1994). Emotion and psychopathy: Startling new insights. Psychophysiology, 31, 319–330. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1994.tb02440.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porges, S. W. (2011). The polyvagal theory: Neurophysiological foundations of emotions, attachment, communication, and self-regulation. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co.Google Scholar
Portnoy, J., & Farrington, D. P. (2015). Resting heart rate and antisocial behavior: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 22, 33–45. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2015.02.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Provençal, N., Booij, L., & Tremblay, R. E. (2015). The developmental origins of chronic physical aggression: Biological pathways triggered by early life adversity. Journal of Experimental Biology, 218, 123–133. doi:10.1242/jeb.111401CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raine, A. (2013). The anatomy of violence: The biological roots of crime. New York, NY: Pantheon/Random House.Google Scholar
Scherer, K. R. (2009). The dynamic architecture of emotion: Evidence for the component process model. Cognition and Emotion, 23, 1307–1351. doi:10.1080/02699930902928969CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schönenberg, M., Christian, S., Gaußer, A., Mayer, S. V., Hautzinger, M., & Jusyte, A. (2014). Addressing perceptual insensitivity to facial affect in violent offenders: First evidence for the efficacy of a novel implicit training approach. Psychological Medicine, 44, 1043–1052. doi:10.1017/S0033291713001517CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sette, S., Colasante, T., Zava, F., Baumgartner, E., & Malti, T. (2018). Preschoolers’ anticipation of sadness for excluded peers, sympathy, and prosocial behavior. The Journal of Genetic Psychology: Research and Theory on Human Development, 179, 286–296. doi:10.1080/00221325.2018.1502147CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smetana, J., Jambon, M., & Ball, C. (2014). The social domain approach to children's moral and social judgments. In Killen, M. & Smetana, J. (Eds.) Handbook of moral development (2nd ed., pp. 23–45). New York, NY: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Statistics Canada, . (2018). Census Profile, 2016 Census. Retrieved from https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=EGoogle Scholar
Tangney, J. P., Stuewig, J., & Mashek, D. J. (2007). Moral emotions and moral behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 345–372. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070145CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, Z. E., Eisenberg, N., & Spinrad, T. L. (2015). Respiratory sinus arrhythmia, effortful control, and parenting as predictors of children's sympathy across early childhood. Developmental Psychology, 51, 17–25. doi:10.1037/a0038189CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Timmermann, M., Jeung, H., Schmitt, R., Boll, S., Freitag, C. M., Bertsch, K., & Herpertz, S. C. (2017). Oxytocin improves facial emotion recognition in young adults with antisocial personality disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 85, 158–164. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.07.483CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tottenham, N., Tanaka, J. W., Leon, A. C., McCarry, T., Nurse, M., Hare, T. A., … Nelson, C. (2009). The NimStim set of facial expressions: Judgments from untrained research participants. Psychiatry Research, 168, 242–249. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2008.05.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van Goozen, S. H. M. (2015). The role of early emotion impairments in the development of persistent antisocial behavior. Child Development Perspectives, 9, 206–210. doi:10.1111/cdep.12134CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, B. A., & Delk, L. A. (2017). Uncaring young adults show reduced vigilance for others' fearful expressions. Personality and Individual Differences, 106, 77–80. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.10.026CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Colasante et al. Supplementary Materials

Colasante et al. Supplementary Materials

Download Colasante et al. Supplementary Materials(File)
File 37 KB