Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-s2hrs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-14T16:57:34.019Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Reducing youth internalizing symptoms: Effects of a family-based preventive intervention on parental guilt induction and youth cognitive style

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 January 2014

Laura G. McKee ,
Justin Parent ,
Rex Forehand ,
Aaron Rakow ,
Kelly H. Watson ,
Jennifer P. Dunbar ,
Michelle M. Reising ,
Emily Hardcastle  and
Bruce E. Compas
Laura G. McKee*
Affiliation:
Clark University
Justin Parent
Affiliation:
University of Vermont
Rex Forehand
Affiliation:
University of Vermont
Aaron Rakow
Affiliation:
Children's National Medical Center and George Washington School of Medicine
Kelly H. Watson
Affiliation:
Vanderbilt University
Jennifer P. Dunbar
Affiliation:
Vanderbilt University
Michelle M. Reising
Affiliation:
Vanderbilt University
Emily Hardcastle
Affiliation:
Vanderbilt University
Bruce E. Compas
Affiliation:
Vanderbilt University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Laura G. McKee, Department of Psychology, Clark University, 950 Main Street, Jonas Clark Hall, Worcester, MA 01610; E-mail: lmckee@clarku.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study utilized structural equation modeling to examine the associations among parental guilt induction (a form of psychological control), youth cognitive style, and youth internalizing symptoms, with parents and youth participating in a randomized controlled trial of a family-based group cognitive–behavioral preventive intervention targeting families with a history of caregiver depression. The authors present separate models utilizing parent report and youth report of internalizing symptoms. Findings suggest that families in the active condition (family-based group cognitive–behavioral group) relative to the comparison condition showed a significant decline in parent use of guilt induction at the conclusion of the intervention (6 months postbaseline). Furthermore, reductions in parental guilt induction at 6 months were associated with significantly lower levels of youth negative cognitive style at 12 months. Finally, reductions in parental use of guilt induction were associated with lower youth internalizing symptoms 1 year following the conclusion of the intervention (18 months postbaseline).

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 26 , Issue 2 , May 2014 , pp. 319 - 332
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abela, J. R. Z., & Hankin, B. L. (2008). Cognitive vulnerability to depression in children and adolescents: A developmental psychopathology perspective. In Abela, J. R. Z. & Hankin, B. L. (Eds.), Handbook of child and adolescent depression (pp. 35–78). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Abramson, L. Y., Metalsky, G. I., & Alloy, L. B. (1989). Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review, 96, 358–372. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.96.2.358 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for ASEBA schoolage forms and profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families.Google Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Amodio, D. M., Devine, P. G., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2007). A dynamic model of guilt: Implications for motivation and self-regulation in the context of prejudice. Psychological Science, 18, 524–530. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01933.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barber, B. K., & Harmon, E. L. (2002). Violating the self: Parental psychological control of children and adolescents. In Barber, B. K. (Ed.), Intrusive parenting: How psychological control affects children and adolescents (pp. 23–43). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barber, B. K., Stolz, H. E., & Olsen, J. A. (2005). Parental support, psychological control, and behavioral control: Assessing relevance across time, method, and culture. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 70.Google Scholar
Barber, B. K., Xia, M., Olsen, J. A., McNeely, C. A., & Bose, K. (2012). Feeling disrespected by parents: Refining the measurement and understanding of psychological control. Journal of Adolescence, 35, 273–287.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beardslee, W. R., Gladstone, T. R. G., & O'Connor, E. E. (2011). Transmission and prevention of mood disorders among children of affectively ill parents: A review. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 50, 1098–1109. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.07.020 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beardslee, W. R., Wright, E. J., Gladstone, T. R. G., & Forbes, P. (2007). Long-term effects from a randomized trial of two public health preventive interventions for parental depression. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 703–713. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.21.4.703 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental, and theoretical aspects. New York: International Universities Press.Google Scholar
Beck, A. T. (1987). Cognitive models of depression. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 1, 5–37.Google Scholar
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory—II. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Beck, A. T., & Young, J. E. (1985). Depression. In Barlow, D. H. (Ed.), Clinical handbook of psychological disorders: A step-by-step treatment manual (pp. 206–244). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238–246. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boland, R. J., & Keller, M. B. (2009). Course and outcome of depression. In Gotlib, I. H. & Hammen, C. L. (Eds.), Handbook of depression (2nd ed., pp. 23–43). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In Bollen, K. A. & Long, J. S. (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Bruce, A. E., Cole, D. A., Dallaire, D. D., Jacquez, F. M., Pineda, A. Q., & LaGrange, B. (2006). Relations of parenting and negative life events to cognitive diatheses for depression in children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 321–333. doi:10.1007/s10802-006-9019-x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buhler, A., Kotter, C., Jaursch, S., & Losel, F. (2011). Prevention of familial transmission of depression: EFFEKT-E, a selective program for emotionally burdened families. Journal of Public Health, 19, 321–327. doi:10.1007/s10389-011-0423-5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, J. S., & Garber, J. (2011). Predictors of the first onset of a major depressive episode and changes in depressive symptoms across adolescence: Stress and negative cognitions. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 779–796. doi:10.1037/a0025441 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cole, D. A., Ciesla, J., Dallaire, D. H., Jacquez, F. M., Pineda, A., LaGrange, B., et al. (2008). Emergence of attributional style and its relation to depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 16–31. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.117.1.16 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, D. A., Jacquez, F. M., LaGrange, B., Pineda, A. Q., Truss, A. E., Weitlauf, A. S., et al. (2011). A longitudinal study of cognitive risks for depressive symptoms in children and young adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 31, 782–816. doi:10.1177/0272431610376248 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, D. A., & Turner, J. E. (1993). Models of cognitive mediation and moderation in child depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 271–281.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Compas, B. E., Champion, J. E., Forehand, R., Cole, D. A., Reeslund, K. L., Fear, J., et al. (2010). Coping and parenting: Mediators of 12-month outcomes of a family group cognitive–behavioral preventive intervention with families of depressed parents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 78, 623–634. doi:10.1037/a0020459 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Compas, B. E., Forehand, R., Keller, G., Champion, J., Rakow, A., Reeslund, K., et al. (2009). Randomized controlled trial of a family cognitive–behavioral preventive intervention for children of depressed parents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77, 1007–1020. doi:10.1037/a0016930 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Compas, B. E., Forehand, R., Thigpen, J. C., Keller, G., Hardcastle, E. J., Cole, D. A., et al. (2011). Family group cognitive–-behavioral preventive intervention for families of depressed parents: 18- and 24-month outcomes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79, 488–499. doi:10.1037/a0024254 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connell, A. M., & Dishion, T. J. (2008). Reducing depression among at-risk early adolescents: Three-year effects of a family-centered intervention embedded within schools. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 574–585. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.22.3.574 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Los Reyes, A., & Kazdin, A. E. (2005). Informant discrepancies in the assessment of childhood psychopathology: A critical review, theoretical framework, and recommendations for further study. Psychological Bulletin, 131, 483–509. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.131.4.483 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dix, T., & Meunier, L. N. (2009). Depressive symptoms and parenting competence: An analysis of 13 regulatory processes. Developmental Review, 29, 45–68. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2008.11.002 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donatelli, J. L., Bybee, J. A., & Buka, S. L. (2007). What do mothers make adolescents feel guilty about? Incidents, reactions, and relation to depression. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 16, 859–875. doi:10.1007/s10826-006-9130-1 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ebesutani, C., Bernstein, A., Martinez, J. I., & Chorpita, B. F. (2011). The youth self report: Applicability and validity across younger and older youth. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40, 338–346. doi:10.1080/15374416.2011.546041 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., & Spinrad, T. L. (1998). Parental socialization of emotion. Psychological Inquiry, 9, 241–273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
El-Sheikh, M., Hinnant, J. B., Kelly, R. J., & Erath, S. (2010). Maternal psychological control and child internalizing symptoms: Vulnerability and protective factors across bioregulatory and ecological domains. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 188–198. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02140.x CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Everaert, J., Koster, E. H. W., & Derakshan, N. (2012). The combined cognitive bias hypothesis in depression: A state-of-the-art. Clinical Psychology Review, 32, 413–424. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.04.003 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farrell, A. D. (1994). Structural equation modeling with longitudinal data: Strategies for examining group differences and reciprocal relationships. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 477–487. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.62.3.477 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fear, J. M., Champion, J. E., Reeslund, K. L., Forehand, R., Colletti, C., Roberts, L., et al. (2009). Parental depression and interparental conflict: Children and adolescents' self-blame and coping responses. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 762–766. doi:10.1037/a0016381 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feng, X., Shaw, D. S., Skuban, E. M., & Lane, T (2007). Emotional exchange in mother–child dyads: Stability, mutual influence, and associations with maternal depression and child problem behavior. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 714–725. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.21.4.714 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Field, T., Healy, B. T., Goldstein, S., & Guthertz, M. (1990). Behavior-state matching and synchrony in mother–infant interactions of nondepressed versus depressed dyads. Developmental Psychology, 26, 7–14. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.26.1.7 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. W. (2001). Structured clinical interview for DSM–IV–TR axis I disorders, research version, patient edition (SCID-I/P). New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research.Google Scholar
Forehand, R., Thigpen, J. C., Parent, J., Hardcastle, E. J., Bettis, A., & Compas, B. E. (2012). Role of parent depressive symptoms in positive and negative parenting in a preventive intervention. Journal of Family Psychology, 26, 532–541. doi:10.1037/a0028406 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Garber, J., & Flynn, C. (2001). Predictors of depressive cognitions in young adolescents. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 353–376. doi:10.1023/A:1005530402239 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodman, S. H., Adamson, L. B., Riniti, J., & Cole, S. (1994). Mothers’ expressed attitudes: Associations with maternal depression and children's self-esteem and psychopathology. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 1265–1274. doi:10.1097/00004583-199411000-00007 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, S. H., & Gotlib, I. H. (1999). Risk for psychopathology in the children of depressed mothers: A developmental model for understanding mechanisms of transmission. Psychological Review, 106, 458–490. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.106.3.458 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gotlib, I. H., & Joormann, J. (2010). Cognition and depression: Current status and future directions. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 6, 285–312. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.121208.131305 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenberg, P. E., Kessler, R. C., Birnbaum, H. G., Leong, S. A., Lowe, S. W., Berglund, P. A., et al. (2003). The economic burden of depression in the United States: How did it change between 1990 and 2000? Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 64, 1465–1475. doi:10.4088/JCP.v64n1211 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammen, C., Brennan, P. A., Keenan-Miller, D., & Herr, N. R. (2008). Early onset recurrent subtype of adolescent depression: Clinical and psychosocial correlates. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 433–440.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hankin, B. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (2002). Measuring cognitive vulnerability to depression in adolescence: Reliability, validity, and gender differences. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 31, 491–504. doi:10.1207/153744202320802160 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, R. H., Reinecke, M. A., Gollan, J. K., & Kane, P. (2008). Empirical evidence of cognitive vulnerability for depression among children and adolescents: A cognitive science and developmental perspective. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 759–782. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.10.006 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jaenicke, C., Hammen, C., Zupan, B., Hiroto, D., Gordon, D., Adrian, C., et al. (1987). Cognitive vulnerability in children at risk for depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15, 559–572. doi:10.1007/BF00917241 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaufman, J., Birmaher, B., Brent, D., Rao, U., Flynn, C., Moreci, P., et al. (1997). Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age children—Present and Lifetime Version (K-SADS-PL): Initial reliability and validity data. Journal of American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 980–988.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendall, P. C., & Drabick, D. A. (2010). Problems for the book of problems? Diagnosing mental health disorders among youth. Clinical psychology: Science and Practice, 17, 265–271. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.2010.01218.x Google ScholarPubMed
Kessler, R. C., & Greenberg, D. F. (1981). Linear panel analysis: Models of quantitative change. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., & Wang, P. S. (2009). The epidemiology of depression. In Gotlib, I. H. & Hammen, C. L. (Eds.), Handbook of depression (2nd ed., pp. 5–22). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kincaid, C., Jones, D. J., Cuellar, J., & Gonzalez, M. (2011). Psychological control associated with youth adjustment and risky behavior in African American single mother families. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20, 102–110. doi:10.1007/s10826-010-9383-6 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lakdawalla, Z., Hankin, B. L., & Mermelstein, R. (2007). Cognitive theories of depression in children and adolescents: A conceptual and quantitative review. Child Clinical and Family Psychology Review, 10, 1–24. doi:10.1007/s10567-006-0013-1 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., Klein, D. N., & Seeley, J. R. (1999). Natural course of adolescent major depressive disorder: I. continuity into young adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 56–63. doi:10.1097/00004583-199901000-00020 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lovejoy, M. C., Graczyk, P. A., O'Hare, E., & Neuman, G. (2000). Maternal depression and parenting behavior: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 20, 561–592.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKee, L., Colletti, C., Rakow, A., Jones, D. J., & Forehand, R. (2008). Parenting and child externalizing behaviors: Are the associations specific or diffuse? Aggression & Violent Behavior, 13, 201–215. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2008.03.005 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLeod, B. D., Weisz, J. R., & Wood, J. J. (2007). Examining the association between parenting and childhood depression: A meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 27, 986–1003. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.03.001 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mezulis, A., Funasaki, K., & Hyde, J. S. (2011). Negative cognitive style trajectories in the transition to adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 40, 318–331. doi:10.1080/15374416.2011.546048 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mian, N. D., Wainwright, L., Briggs-Gowan, M., & Carter, A. S. (2011). An ecological risk model for early childhood anxiety: The importance of early child symptoms and temperament. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 501–512. doi:10.1007/s10802-010-9476-0 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Munoz, R. F., Beardslee, W. R., & Leykin, Y. (2012). Major depression can be prevented. American Psychologist, 67, 285–295. doi:10.1037/a0027666 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2011). Mplus user's guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Myers, K., & Winters, N. C. (2002). Ten-year review of rating scales: I. Overview of scale functioning, psychometric properties, and selection. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 114–122. doi:10.1097/00004583-200202000-00004 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Research Council and Institute of Medicine. (2009). Depression in parents, parenting, and children: Opportunities to improve identification, treatment, and prevention. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.Google Scholar
Radke-Yarrow, M., Belmont, B., Nottelman, E., & Bottomly, L. (1990). Young children's self-conceptions: Origins in the natural discourse of depressed and normal mothers and their children. In Cicchetti, D. & Beeghly, M. (Eds.), The self in transition: Infancy to childhood (pp. 345–361). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Rakow, A., Forehand, R., Haker, K., McKee, L. G., Champion, J. E., Potts, J., et al. (2011). Use of parental guilt induction among depressed parents. Journal of Family Psychology, 25, 147–151. doi:10.1037/a0022110 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rakow, A., Forehand, R., McKee, L., Coffelt, N., Champion, J., Fear, J., et al. (2009). The relation of parental guilt induction to child internalizing problems when a caregiver has a history of depression. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 18, 367–377. doi:10.1007/s10826-008-9239-5 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaefer, E. S. (1965). A configurational analysis of children's reports of parent behavior. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 29, 552–557.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soenens, B., & Beyers, W. (2012). The cross-cultural significance of control and autonomy in parent–adolescent relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 35, 243–248. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.02.007 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soenens, B., Luyckx, K., Goossens, L., Vansteenkiste, M., Luyten, P., & Duriez, B. (2008). Maladaptive perfectionism as an intervening variable between psychological control and adolescent depressive symptoms: A three wave longitudinal study. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 465–474. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.22.3.465 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steinberg, L. (1990). Autonomy, conflicts, and harmony in the family relationship. In Feldman, S. S. & Elliot, G. R. (Eds.), At the threshold: The developing adolescent (pp. 431–456). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Tangney, J. P., & Dearing, R. L. (2002). Shame and guilt. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Tangney, J. P., Wagner, P. E., Burggraf, S. A., Gramzow, R., & Fletcher, C. (1990). The Test of Self-Conscious Affect for Children (TOSCA-C). Fairfax, VA: George Mason University.Google Scholar
Tilghman-Osborne, C., Cole, D. A., & Felton, J. (2010). Definition and measurement of guilt: Implications for clinical research and practice. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 536–546. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.007 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tilghman-Osborne, C., Cole, D. A., & Felton, J. (2012). Inappropriate and excessive guilt: Instrument validation and developmental differences in relation to depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 607–620. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9591-6 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tomarken, A. J., & Waller, N. G. (2005). Structural equation modeling: Strengths, limitations, and misconceptions. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 31–65. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.144239 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tompson, M. C., Pierre, C. B., Boger, K. D., McKowen, J. W., Chan, P. T., & Freed, R. D. (2010). Maternal depression, maternal expressed emotion, and youth psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 105–117. doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9349-6 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tucker, L. R., & Lewis, C. (1973). A reliability coefficient for maximum likelihood factor analysis. Psychometrika, 38, 1–10. doi:10.1007/BF02291170 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weissman, M., Wickramaratne, P. J., Nomura, Y., Warner, V., Verdeli, H., Pilowsky, D. J., et al. (2005). Family at high and low risk for depression: A 3-generation study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 29–36. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.1.29 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Welner, Z., Reich, W., Herjanic, B., Jung, K. G., & Amado, H. (1987). Reliability, validity, and parent child agreement studies of the Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents (DICA). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 26, 649–653. doi:10.1097/00004583-198709000-00007 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J.-Y., Coatsworth, D., Lengua, L., et al. (2000). An experimental evaluation of theory-based mother and mother–child programs for children of divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 843–856. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.68.5.843 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yule, W. (1993). Developmental considerations in child assessment. In Ollendick, T. H. & Hersen, M. (Eds.), Handbook of child and adolescent assessment (pp. 15–25). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.Google Scholar