Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-xbtfd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-13T00:39:13.574Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Resilience in the transition to adulthood

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 April 2012

Keith B. Burt  and
Amy A. Paysnick
Keith B. Burt*
Affiliation:
University of Vermont
Amy A. Paysnick
Affiliation:
University of Vermont
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Keith Burt, Department of Psychology, University of Vermont, 2 Colchester Avenue, Burlington, VT 05405; E-mail: keith.burt@uvm.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The emerging adulthood years, commonly defined as the late teens and twenties, represent a period of significant variability and change for much of the population. Thus, it is important for the field to consider pathways of at-risk youth as they move through this key window of development. We review research on positive outcomes in the transition to adulthood following a history of experienced adversity, including both investigations focused on resilience in diverse specific populations as well as broader longitudinal studies. There is compelling evidence for major protective and promotive factors identified in younger age periods continuing to exert an influence at this stage of development, along with evidence for new factors unique to this developmental time and/or to specific populations. We conclude by noting recommendations for future work in this area, emphasizing Garmezy's call for the testing of competing models.

Type
Special Section Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 24 , Issue 2 , May 2012 , pp. 493 - 505
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2012

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allen, J. P. (2010). Experience, development, and resilience: The legacy of Stuart Hauser's explorations of the transition from adolescence into early adulthood. Research in Human Development, 7, 241–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469–480.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bearman, P. S., Jones, J., & Udry, J. R. (1997). The National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health: Research design. Retrieved October 22, 2011, from http://www.cpc.unc.edu/addhealthGoogle Scholar
Block, J. H., & Block, J. (1980). The role of ego-control and ego-resiliency in the organization of behavior. In Collins, W. A. (Ed.), The Minnesota symposia on child development: development of cognition, affect, and social relations (Vol. 13, pp. 39–101). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bugental, D. B., Beaulieu, D., Fowler, E., O'Brien, E., & Cayan, L. (2010). Reactivity to stress: When does a history of medical adversity foster resilience versus vulnerability? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40, 1385–1399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burt, K. B., & Masten, A. S. (2010). Development in the transition to adulthood: Vulnerabilities and opportunities. In Grant, J. E. & Potenza, M. N. (Eds.), Young adult mental health (pp. 5–18). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Casier, A., Goubert, L., Theunis, M., Huse, D., De Baets, F., Matthys, D., et al. (2011). Acceptance and well-being in adolescents and young adults with cystic fibrosis: A prospective study. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 36, 476–487.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Curtis, W. J. (2003). Moving research on resilience into the 21st century: Theoretical and methodological considerations in examining the biological contributors to resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 773–810.Google Scholar
Cohen, P., Kasen, S., Chen, H., Hartmark, C., & Gordon, K. (2003). Variations in patterns of developmental transitions in the emerging adulthood period. Developmental Psychology, 39, 657–669.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, W. A., & van Dulmen, M. H. M. (2006). The significance of middle childhood peer competence for work and relationships in early adulthood. In Huston, A. (Ed.), Developmental context of middle childhood: Bridges to adolescence and adulthood (pp. 23–40). Washington, DC: APA.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collishaw, S., Pickles, A., Messer, J., Rutter, M., Shearer, C., & Maughan, B. (2007). Resilience to adult psychopathology following childhood maltreatment: Evidence from a community sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 211–229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conger, R. D., & Conger, K. J. (2002). Resilience in Midwestern families: Selected findings from the first decade of a prospective, longitudinal study. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 64, 361–373.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conger, R. D., Cui, M., Bryant, C. M., & Elder, G. H. (2000). Competence in early adult romantic relationships: A developmental perspective on family influences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 224–237.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conger, R. D., Ge, X., Elder, G. H., Lorenz, F. O., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Economic stress, coercive family process and developmental problems of adolescents. Child Development, 65, 541–561.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. (2003). Development of a new resilience scale: The Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18, 76–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Courtney, M. E., & Dworsky, A. (2006). Early outcomes for young adults transitioning from out-of-home care in the USA. Child and Family Social Work, 11, 209–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Courtney, M. E., & Heuring, D. H. (2005). The transition to adulthood for youth “aging out” of the foster care system. In Osgood, D. W., Foster, E. M., Flanagan, C., & Ruth, G. R. (Eds.), On your own without a net: The transition to adulthood for vulnerable populations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Dahl, R. E. (2004). Adolescent brain development: A period of vulnerabilities and opportunities. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1021, 1–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daining, C., & DePanfilis, D. (2007). Resilience of youth in transition from out-of-home care to adulthood. Children and Youth Services Review, 29, 1158–1178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DiRago, A. C., & Vaillant, G. C. (2007). Resilience in inner city youth: Childhood predictors of occupational status across the lifespan. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 61–70.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donnellan, M. B., Conger, K. J., McAdams, K. K., & Neppl, T. K. (2009). Personal characteristics and resilience to economic hardship and its consequences: Conceptual issues and empirical illustrations. Journal of Personality, 77, 1645–1675.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DuMont, K. A., Widom, C. S., & Czaja, S. J. (2007). Predictors of resilience in abused and neglected children grown-up: The role of individual and neighborhood characteristics. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 255–274.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elder, G. H., & Conger, R. D. (2000). Children of the land: Adversity and success in rural America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elder, G. H., & Shanahan, M. J. (2006). The life course and human development. In Lerner, R. M. (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (6th ed., pp. 665–715). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Fergusson, D. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2003). Resilience to childhood adversity: Results of a 21-year study. In Luthar, S. S. (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fergusson, D. M., & Lynskey, M. T. (1997). Physical punishment/maltreatment during childhood and adjustment in young adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 21, 617–630.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garmezy, N. (1977). On some risks in risk research. Psychological Medicine, 7, 1–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garmezy, N. (1990). A closing note: Reflections on the future. In Rolf, J., Masten, A. S., Cicchetti, D., Nuechterlein, K. H., & Weintraub, S. (Eds.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Garmezy, N., Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (1984). The study of stress and competence in children: A building block for developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 97–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giedd, J. N., Blumenthal, J., Jeffries, N. O., Castellanos, F. X., Liu, H., Zijdenbos, A., et al. (1999). Brain development during childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal MRI study. Nature Neuroscience, 2, 861–863.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gralinski-Bakker, J. H., Hauser, S. T., Stott, C., Billings, R. L., & Allen, J. P. (2004). Markers of resilience and risk: Adult lives in a vulnerable population. Research in Human Development, 1, 291–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gutman, L. M., & Sameroff, A. J. (2004). Continuities in depression from adolescence to young adulthood: Contrasting ecological influences. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 967–984.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hagan, M. J., Roubinov, D. S., Gress-Smith, J., Luecken, L. J., Sandler, I. N., Wolchik, S., et al. (2011). Positive parenting during childhood moderates the impact of recent negative events on cortisol activity in parentally bereaved youth. Psychopharmacology, 214, 231–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hankin, B. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (2001). Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive vulnerability-transactional stress theory. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 773–796.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hass, M., & Graydon, K. (2009). Sources of resiliency among successful foster youth. Children and Youth Services Review, 31, 457–463.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education (3rd ed.). New York: David McKay.Google Scholar
Hines, A. M., Merdinger, J., & Wyatt, P. (2005). Former foster youth attending college: Resilience and the transition to young adulthood. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 75, 381–394.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holmbeck, G. N., Gorey-Ferguson, L., Hudson, T., Seefeldt, T., Shapera, W., Turner, T., et al. (1997). Maternal, paternal, and marital functioning in families of preadolescents with spina bifida. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 22, 167–181.Google ScholarPubMed
Kaplan, H. B. (1999). Toward an understanding of resilience: A critical review of definitions and models. In Glantz, M. D. & Johnson, J. L. (Eds.), Resilience and development: Positive life adaptations (pp. 17–84). New York: Kluwer.Google Scholar
Kobasa, S. C. (1979). Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kraemer, H. C., Stice, E., Kazdin, A., Offord, D., & Kupfer, D. (2001). How do risk factors work together? Mediators, moderators, and independent, overlapping, and proxy risk factors. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 848–856.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lam, C. B., & McBride-Chang, C. A. (2007). Resilience in young adulthood: The moderating influences of gender-related personality traits and coping flexibility. Sex Roles, 56, 159–172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laub, J. H., & Sampson, R. J. (2003). Shared beginnings, divergent lives: Delinquent boys to age 70. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Luecken, L. J., & Gress, J. L. (2010). Early adversity and resilience in emerging adulthood. In Reich, J. W., Zautra, A. J., & Hall, J. S. (Eds.), Handbook of adult resilience (pp. 238–257). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S. (1991). Vulnerability and resilience: A study of high-risk adolescents. Child Development, 62, 600–616.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luthar, S. S. (2006). Resilience in development: A synthesis of research across five decades. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (Vol. 3, 2nd ed., pp. 739–795). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Luthar, S. S., & Brown, P. J. (2007). Maximizing resilience through diverse levels of inquiry: Prevailing paradigms, possibilities, and priorities for the future. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 931–955.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Development, 71, 543–562.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luthar, S. S., & Goldstein, A. (2004). Children's exposure to community violence: Implications for understanding risk and resilience. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 33, 499–505.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luthar, S. S., & Zelazo, L. B. (2003). Research on resilience: An integrative review. In Luthar, S. S. (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaption in the context of childhood adversities (pp. 510–550). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maddi, S. R. (2002). The story of hardiness: Twenty years of theorizing, research, and practice. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 54, 175–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist, 56, 227–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S. (2007). Resilience in developing systems: Progress and promise as the fourth wave rises. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 921–930.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., Burt, K. B., & Coatsworth, J. D. (2006). Competence and psychopathology in development. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (Vol. 3, 2nd ed., pp. 696–738). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., Burt, K. B., Roisman, G. I., Obradovic, J., Long, J. D., & Tellegen, A. (2004). Resources and resilience in the transition to adulthood: Continuity and change. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 1071–1094.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Coatsworth, J. D. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environments: Lessons from research on successful children. American Psychologist, 53, 205–220.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., Coatsworth, J. D., Neeman, J., Gest, S. D., Tellegen, A., & Garmezy, N. (1995). The structure and coherence of competence from childhood through adolescence. Child Development, 66, 1635–1659.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., Faden, V. B., Zucker, R. A., & Spear, L. P. (2008). Underage drinking: A developmental framework. Pediatrics, 121(Suppl. 4), S235–S251.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., Hubbard, J. J., Gest, S. D., Tellegen, A., Garmezy, N., & Ramirez, M. (1999). Competence in the context of adversity: Pathways to resilience and maladaptation from childhood to late adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 143–169.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Reed, M.-G. J. (2002). Resilience in development. In Snyder, C. R. & López, S. J. (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 74–88). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (2012). Resilience in developmental psychopathology: Contributions of the Project Competence Longitudinal Study. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 345–361.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClelland, G. H., & Judd, C. M. (1993). Statistical difficulties of detecting interactions and moderator effects. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 376–390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merdinger, J. M., Hines, A. M., Osterling, K. L., & Wyatt, P. (2005). Pathways to college for former foster youth: Understanding factors that contribute to educational success. Child Welfare, 84, 867–896.Google ScholarPubMed
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., & Howerter, A. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E. (1993). “Life-course-persistent” and “adolescence-limited” antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100, 674–701.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., et al. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 2693–2698.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Harrington, H., & Milne, B. J. (2002). Males on the life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways: Follow-up at age 26 years. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 179–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Osterling, K. L., & Hines, A. M. (2006). Mentoring adolescent foster youth: Promoting resilience during developmental transitions. Child and Family Social Work, 11, 242–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raz, A., & Buhle, J. (2006). Typologies of attentional networks. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 367–379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, S., & Pashler, H. (2000). How persuasive is a good fit? A comment on theory testing. Psychological Review, 107, 358–367.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roisman, G. I., Masten, A. S., Coatsworth, J. D., & Tellegen, A. (2004). Salient and emerging developmental tasks in the transition to adulthood. Child Development, 75, 123–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (1985). Resilience in the face of adversity: Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 598–611.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (2007). Resilience, competence, and coping. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31, 205–209.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M., Tizard, J., & Whitmore, K. (1970). Education, health, and behavior. London: Longman & Green.Google Scholar
Sameroff, A. J. (1999). Ecological perspectives on developmental risk. In Osofsky, J. D. & Fitzgerald, H. E. (Eds.), WAIMH handbook of infant mental health: Vol. 4. Infant mental health groups at risk (pp. 223–248). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1993). Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schulenberg, J. E., & Zarrett, N. R. (2006). Mental health during emerging adulthood: Continuity and discontinuity in courses, causes, and functioning. In Arnett, J. J. & Tanner, J. L. (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century. Washington, DC: APA.Google Scholar
Schwartz, L. A., & Drotar, D. (2009). Health-related hindrance of personal goal pursuit and well-being of young adults with cystic fibrosis, pediatric cancer survivors, and peers without a history of chronic illness. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 34, 954–965.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Settersten, R. A., Furstenberg, F. F., & Rumbaut, R. G. (2005). On the frontier of adulthood: Theory, research, and public policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simons, R. L., Stewart, E., Gordon, L. C., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (2002). A test of life-course explanations for stability and change in antisocial behavior from adolescence to young adulthood. Criminology, 40, 401–434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skinner, M. L., Haggerty, K. P., Fleming, C. B., & Catalano, R. F. (2009). Predicting functional resilience among young-adult children of opiate-dependent parents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 44, 283–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soffer-Dudek, N., Wertheim, R., & Shahar, G. (2011). Lucid dreaming and resilience in the face of exposure to terrorism. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24, 125–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sroufe, L. A. (1979). The coherence of individual development: Early care, attachment, and subsequent developmental issues. American Psychologist, 34, 834–841.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., Carlson, E. A., & Collins, W. A. (2005). The development of the person: The Minnesota Study of Risk and Adaptation From Birth to Adulthood. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Stein, M. (2006). Research review: Young people leaving care. Child and Family Social Work, 11, 273–279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steinberg, L., Dahl, R. E., Keating, D., Kupfer, D. J., Masten, A. S., & Pine, D. (2006). The study of developmental psychopathology in adolescence: Integrating affective neuroscience with the study of context. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (Vol. 2, 2nd ed., pp. 710–741). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Steinberg, L., Cauffman, E., Woolard, J., Graham, S., & Banich, M. (2009). Are adolescents less mature than adults? Minors' access to abortion, the juvenile death penalty, and the alleged APA “flip-flop.” American Psychologist, 64, 583–594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Surjadi, F. F., Lorenz, F. O., Wickrama, K. A. S., & Conger, R. D. (2011). Parental support, partner support, and the trajectories of mastery from adolescence to early adulthood. Journal of Adolescence, 34, 619–628.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tarter, R. E., & Vanyukov, M. (1999). Re-visiting the validity of the construct of resilience. In Glantz, M. D. & Johnson, J. L. (Eds.), Resilience and development: Positive life adaptations (pp. 85–100). New York: Kluwer.Google Scholar
Ungar, M., Liebenberg, L., Boothroyd, R., Kwong, W. M., Lee, T. Y., LeBlanc, J., et al. (2008). The study of youth resilience across cultures: Lessons from a pilot study of measurement development. Research in Human Development, 5, 166–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
US Department of Education. (2011). National Center for Education Statistics: The condition of education 2011 (NCES 2011-033, table A-17-1). Retrieved October 22, 2011, from http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=77Google Scholar
Vanderbilt-Adriance, E., & Shaw, D. S. (2008). Conceptualizing and re-evaluating resilience across levels of risk, time, and domains of competence. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 11, 30–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wade, J., & Dixon, J. (2006). Making a home, finding a job: Investigating early housing and employment outcomes for young people leaving care. Child and Family Social Work, 11, 199–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A study of resilient children. New York: McGraw–Hill.Google Scholar
Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High risk children from birth to adulthood. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (2001). Journeys from childhood to midlife: Risk, resilience and recovery. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
White, J. L., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1989). A prospective replication of the protective effects of IQ in subjects at high risk for juvenile delinquency. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 719–724.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wickrama, K. A. S., Conger, R. D., Lorenz, F. O., & Jung, T. (2008). Family antecedents and consequences of trajectories of depressive symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood: A life course investigation. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 49, 468–483.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wickrama, K. A. S., & Noh, S. (2010). The long arm of community: The influence of childhood community contexts across the early life course. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 39, 894–910.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Windle, G., Bennett, K. M., & Noyes, J. (2011). A methodological review of resilience measurement scales. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 9, 8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yates, T. M., & Grey, I. K. (2012). Adapting to aging out: Profiles of risk and resilience among emancipated foster youth. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 475–492.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., & Bauer, P. J. (in press). National Institutes of Health Toolbox—Cognitive Function Battery (NIH Toolbox CFB): Validation for children between 3 and 15 years. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development.Google Scholar
Zukerman, J. M., DeVine, K. A., & Holmbeck, G. N. (2011). Adolescent predictors of emerging adulthood milestones in youth with spina bifida. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 36, 265–276.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed