Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T08:06:21.936Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Sleep problems in adolescence are prospectively linked to later depressive symptoms via the cortisol awakening response

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 August 2019

Kate Ryan Kuhlman ,
Jessica J. Chiang Open the ORCID record for Jessica J. Chiang [Opens in a new window] ,
Julienne E. Bower ,
Michael R. Irwin ,
Teresa E. Seeman ,
Heather E. McCreath ,
David M. Almeida ,
Ronald E. Dahl  and
Andrew J. Fuligni
Kate Ryan Kuhlman*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychological Science, School of Social Ecology, University of California at Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA Cousins Center for Psychoneuroimmunology, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Behavior, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Institute for Interdisciplinary Salivary Bioscience, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
Jessica J. Chiang
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
Julienne E. Bower
Affiliation:
Cousins Center for Psychoneuroimmunology, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Behavior, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Department of Psychology, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Michael R. Irwin
Affiliation:
Cousins Center for Psychoneuroimmunology, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Behavior, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Teresa E. Seeman
Affiliation:
Division of Geriatrics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
Heather E. McCreath
Affiliation:
Division of Geriatrics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
David M. Almeida
Affiliation:
Center for Healthy Aging, College of Health and Human Development, Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA, USA
Ronald E. Dahl
Affiliation:
Community Health & Human Development, School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
Andrew J. Fuligni
Affiliation:
Cousins Center for Psychoneuroimmunology, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Behavior, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA Department of Psychology, University of California at Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: Kate Ryan Kuhlman, University of California Irvine, School of Social Ecology, 4201 Social & Behavioral Sciences Gateway, Irvine, CA92697; E-mail: krkuhlman@ucla.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Sleep disturbance is a symptom of and a well-known risk factor for depression. Further, atypical functioning of the HPA axis has been linked to the pathogenesis of depression. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of adolescent HPA axis functioning in the link between adolescent sleep problems and later depressive symptoms. Methods: A sample of 157 17–18 year old adolescents (61.8% female) completed the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Inventory (PSQI) and provided salivary cortisol samples throughout the day for three consecutive days. Two years later, adolescents reported their depressive symptoms via the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). Results: Individuals (age 17–18) with greater sleep disturbance reported greater depressive symptoms two years later (age 19–20). This association occurred through the indirect effect of sleep disturbance on the cortisol awakening response (CAR) (indirect effect = 0.14, 95%CI [.02 -.39]). Conclusions: One pathway through which sleep problems may lead to depressive symptoms is by up-regulating components of the body’s physiological stress response system that can be measured through the cortisol awakening response. Behavioral interventions that target sleep disturbance in adolescents may mitigate this neurobiological pathway to depression during this high-risk developmental phase.

Keywords

adolescencecortisol awakening responsedepressionHPA axissleep
Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 32 , Issue 3 , August 2020 , pp. 997 - 1006
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adam, E. K., Doane, L. D., Zinbarg, R. E., Mineka, S., Craske, M. G., & Griffith, J. W. (2010). Prospective prediction of major depressive disorder from cortisol awakening responses in adolescence. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 921–931. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.12.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Adam, E. K., & Kumari, M. (2009). Assessing salivary cortisol in large-scale, epidemiological research. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 1423–1436. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.06.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alvaro, P. K., Roberts, R. M., & Harris, J. K. (2013). A systematic review assessing bidirectionality between sleep disturbances, anxiety, and depression. Sleep, 36, 1059–1068. doi:10.5665/sleep.2810CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ashworth, D. K., Sletten, T. L., Junge, M., Simpson, K., Clarke, D., Cunnington, D., & Rajaratnam, S. M. W. (2015). A randomized controlled trial of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia: An effective treatment for comorbid insomnia and depression. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62, 115–123. doi:10.1037/cou0000059CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baglioni, C., Battagliese, G., Feige, B., Spiegelhalder, K., Nissen, C., Voderholzer, U., … Riemann, D. (2011). Insomnia as a predictor of depression: A meta-analytic evaluation of longitudinal epidemiological studies. Journal of Affective Disorders, 135, 10–19. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.01.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baschant, U., & Tuckermann, J. (2010). The role of the glucocorticoid receptor in inflammation and immunity. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 120, 69–75. doi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2010.03.058CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumeister, D., Lightman, S. L., & Pariante, C. M. (2014). The interface of stress and the HPA axis in behavioural phenotypes of mental illness. In Pariante, C. M. & Lapiz-Bluhm, M. D. (Eds.), Behavioral neurobiology of stress-related disorders (pp. 13–24). Berlin: Springer.Google Scholar
Bernert, R. A., Hom, M. A., Iwata, N. G., & Joiner, T. E. (2017). Objectively assessed sleep variability as an acute warning sign of suicidal ideation in a longitudinal evaluation of young adults at high suicide risk. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 78, e678–e687. doi:10.4088/JCP.16m11193CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blake, M. J., Sheeber, L. B., Youssef, G. J., Raniti, M. B., & Allen, N. B. (2017). Systematic review and meta-analysis of adolescent cognitive-behavioral sleep interventions. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 20, 227–249. doi:10.1007/s10567-017-0234-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bouwmans, M. E. J., Conradi, H. J., Bos, E. H., Oldehinkel, A. J., & de Jonge, P. (2017). Bidirectionality between sleep symptoms and core depressive symptoms and their long-term course in major depression. Psychosomatic Medicine, 79, 336–344. doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000407CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buckley, T. M., & Schatzberg, A. F. (2005). On the interactions of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and sleep: Normal HPA axis activity and circadian rhythm, exemplary sleep disorders. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 90, 3106–3114. doi:10.1210/jc.2004-1056CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buysse, D. J., Reynolds, C. F. III, Monk, T. H., Berman, S. R., & Kupfer, D. J. (1989). The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index: A new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Research, 28, 193–213. doi:10.1016/0165-1781(89)90047-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carnegie, R., Araya, R., Ben-Shlomo, Y., Glover, V., O'Connor, T. G., O'Donnell, K. J., … Lewis, G. (2014). Cortisol awakening response and subsequent depression: Prospective longitudinal study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 204, 137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Casper, R. C., Redmond, D. E., Katz, M. M., Schaffer, C. B., Davis, J. M., & Koslow, S. H. (1985). Somatic symptoms in primary affective disorder: Presence and relationship to the classification of depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 1098–1104. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1985.01790340082012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chang, C.-H., Chen, S.-J., & Liu, C.-Y. (2017). Pediatric sleep apnea and depressive disorders risk: A population-based 15-year retrospective cohort study. PLOS ONE, 12, e0181430. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0181430CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chiang, J. J., Kim, J. J., Almeida, D. M., Bower, J. E., Dahl, R. E., Irwin, M. R., … Fuligni, A. J. (2017). Sleep efficiency modulates associations between family stress and adolescent depressive symptoms and negative affect. Journal of Adolescent Health, 61, 501–507. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.04.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cho, H. J., Lavretsky, H., Olmstead, R., Levin, M. J., Oxman, M. N., & Irwin, M. R. (2008). Sleep disturbance and depression recurrence in community-dwelling older adults: A prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 1543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chrousos, G., Vgontzas, A. N., & Kritikou, I. (2016). HPA axis and sleep. In De Groot, L. J., Chrousos, G., & Dungan, K. (Eds.), Endotext (1st ed.). South Dartmouth, MA: MDText.com.Google ScholarPubMed
Clow, A., Hucklebridge, F., Stalder, T., Evans, P., & Thorn, L. (2010). The cortisol awakening response: More than a measure of HPA axis function. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 97–103. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.12.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, J. C., Motivala, S. J., Buysse, D. J., Oxman, M. N., Levin, M. J., & Irwin, M. R. (2006). Validation of a 3-factor scoring model for the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index in older adults. Sleep, 29, 112.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dietch, J. R., Taylor, D. J., Sethi, K., Kelly, K., Bramoweth, A. D., & Roane, B. M. (2016). Psychometric evaluation of the PSQI in U.S. college students. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 12, 1121–1129. doi:10.5664/jcsm.6050CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Doane, L. D., Gress-Smith, J. L., & Breitenstein, R. S. (2015). Multi-method assessments of sleep over the transition to college and the associations with depression and anxiety symptoms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44, 389–404.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ehlert, U., Gaab, J., & Heinrichs, M. (2001). Psychoneuroendocrinological contributions to the etiology of depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and stress-related bodily disorders: The role of the hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal axis. Biological Psychology, 57, 141–152. doi:10.1016/S0301-0511(01)00092-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erickson, K., Drevets, W., & Schulkin, J. (2003). Glucocorticoid regulation of diverse cognitive functions in normal and pathological emotional states. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 27, 233–246. doi:10.1016/S0149-7634(03)00033-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fries, E., Dettenborn, L., & Kirschbaum, C. (2009). The cortisol awakening response (CAR): Facts and future directions. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 72, 67–73. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.03.014CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuligni, A. J., Arruda, E. H., Krull, J. L., & Gonzales, N. A. (2018). Adolescent sleep duration, variability, and peak levels of achievement and mental health. Child Development, 89, e18–e28. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12729CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gregory, A. M., Caspi, A., Eley, T. C., Moffitt, T. E., Oconnor, T. G., & Poulton, R. (2005). Prospective longitudinal associations between persistent sleep problems in childhood and anxiety and depression disorders in adulthood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 157–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guan, S.-S. A., Bower, J. E., Almeida, D. M., Cole, S. W., Dahl, R. E., Irwin, M. R., … Fuligni, A. J. (2016). Parental support buffers the association of depressive symptoms with cortisol and C-reactive protein during adolescence. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 57, 134–143. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2016.03.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hardeveld, F., Spijker, J., Vreeburg, S. A., Graaf, R. D., Hendriks, S. M., Licht, C. M. M., … Beekman, A. T. F. (2014). Increased cortisol awakening response was associated with time to recurrence of major depressive disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 50, 62–71. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.07.027CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Hoyt, M. A., Bower, J. E., Irwin, M. R., Weierich, M. R., & Stanton, A. L. (2016). Sleep quality and depressive symptoms after prostate cancer: The mechanistic role of cortisol. Behavioral Neuroscience, 130, 351–356. doi:10.1037/bne0000107CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hsiao, F.-H., Chang, K.-J., Kuo, W.-H., Huang, C.-S., Liu, Y.-F., Lai, Y.-M., … Chan, C. L. W. (2013). A longitudinal study of cortisol responses, sleep problems, and psychological well-being as the predictors of changes in depressive symptoms among breast cancer survivors. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 38, 356–366. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.06.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Irwin, M. R., Archer, G., Olmstead, R., Brown, T. T., Teplin, L. A., Patel, S. R., … Breen, E. C. (2018). Increased risk of depression in non-depressed HIV infected men with sleep disturbance: Prospective findings from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. EBioMedicine, 36, 454.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuhlman, K. R., Geiss, E. G., Vargas, I., & Lopez-Duran, N. L. (2015). Differential associations between childhood trauma subtypes and adolescent HPA-axis functioning. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 54, 103–114. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.01.020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuhlman, K. R., Irwin, M. R., Ganz, P. A., Crespi, C. M., Petersen, L., Asher, A., & Bower, J. E. (2017). Cortisol awakening response as a prospective risk factor for depressive symptoms in women after treatment for breast cancer. Psychosomatic Medicine, 79, 763–769. doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000499CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuhlman, K. R., Repetti, R. L., Reynolds, B. M., & Robles, T. F. (2016). Change in parent-child conflict and the HPA-axis: Where should we be looking and for how long? Psychoneuroendocrinology, 68, 74–81. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.02.029CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuhlman, K. R., Robles, T. F., Dickenson, L., Reynolds, B., & Repetti, R. L. (2019). Stability of diurnal cortisol measures across days, weeks, and years during middle childhood and early adolescence: Exploring the role of age, pubertal development, and sex. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 100, 67–74. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.09.033CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kumari, M., Badrick, E., Ferrie, J., Perski, A., Marmot, M., & Chandola, T. (2009). Self-reported sleep duration and sleep disturbance are independently associated with cortisol secretion in the Whitehall II Study. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 94, 4801–4809. doi:10.1210/jc.2009-0555CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, E., Cho, H. J., Olmstead, R., Levin, M. J., Oxman, M. N., & Irwin, M. R. (2013). Persistent sleep disturbance: A risk factor for recurrent depression in community-dwelling older adults. Sleep, 36, 1685. doi:10.5665/sleep.3128CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LeMoult, J., Ordaz, S. J., Kircanski, K., Singh, M. K., & Gotlib, I. H. (2015). Predicting first onset of depression in young girls: Interaction of diurnal cortisol and negative life events. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124, 850–859. doi:10.1037/abn0000087CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., & Seeley, J. R. (1998a). Major depressive disorder in older adolescents: Prevalence, risk factors, and clinical implications. Clinical Psychology Review, 18, 765–794.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., & Seeley, J. R. (1998b). Treatment of adolescent depression: Frequency of services and impact on functioning in young adulthood. Depression and Anxiety, 7, 47–52.3.0.CO;2-2>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lopez-Duran, N. L., Kovacs, M., & George, C. J. (2009). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation in depressed children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 1272–1283. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.03.016CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lund, H. G., Reider, B. D., Whiting, A. B., & Prichard, J. R. (2010). Sleep patterns and predictors of disturbed sleep in a large population of college students. Journal of Adolescent Health, 46, 124–132. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.06.016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 434–445. doi:10.1038/nrn2639CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacKinnon, D. P., Fairchild, A. J., & Fritz, M. S. (2007). Mediation analysis. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 593–614. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085542CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGlinchey, E. L., Reyes-Portillo, J. A., Turner, J. B., & Mufson, L. (2017). Innovations in practice: The relationship between sleep disturbances, depression, and interpersonal functioning in treatment for adolescent depression. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 22, 96–99. doi:10.1111/camh.12176CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meerlo, P., Sgoifo, A., & Suchecki, D. (2008). Restricted and disrupted sleep: Effects on autonomic function, neuroendocrine stress systems and stress responsivity. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 12, 197–210. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2007.07.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merikangas, K. R., He, J. P., Brody, D., Fisher, P. W., Bourdon, K., & Koretz, D. S. (2010). Prevalence and treatment of mental disorders among US children in the 2001–2004 NHANES. Pediatrics, 125, 75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Merikangas, K. R., He, J., Burstein, M., Swendsen, J., Avenevoli, S., Case, B., … Olfson, M. (2011). Service utilization for lifetime mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results of the National Comorbidity Survey—Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 50, 32–45. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.10.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miller, A. H., Maletic, V., & Raison, C. L. (2009). Inflammation and its discontents: The role of cytokines in the pathophysiology of major depression. Biological Psychiatry, 65, 732–741. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.11.029CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Minkel, J., Moreta, M., Muto, J., Htaik, O., Jones, C., Basner, M., & Dinges, D. (2014). Sleep deprivation potentiates HPA axis stress reactivity in healthy adults. Health Psychology, 33, 1430–1434. doi:10.1037/a0034219CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mollayeva, T., Thurairajah, P., Burton, K., Mollayeva, S., Shapiro, C. M., & Colantonio, A. (2016). The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index as a screening tool for sleep dysfunction in clinical and non-clinical samples: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 25, 52–73. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2015.01.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mulrow, C. D., Williams, J. W., Gerety, M. B., Ramirez, G., Montiel, O. M., & Kerber, C. (1995). Case-finding instruments for depression in primary care settings. Annals of Internal Medicine, 122, 913–921. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-122-12-199506150-00004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ojio, Y., Nishida, A., Shimodera, S., Togo, F., & Sasaki, T. (2016). Sleep duration associated with the lowest risk of depression/anxiety in adolescents. Sleep, 39, 1555–1562. doi:10.5665/sleep.6020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Okun, M. L., Krafty, R. T., Buysse, D. J., Monk, T. H., Reynolds, C. F. III, Begley, A., & Hall, M. (2010). What constitutes too long of a delay? Determining the cortisol awakening response (CAR) using self-report and PSG-assessed wake time. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 460–468. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.08.017CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oster, H., Damerow, S., Kiessling, S., Jakubcakova, V., Abraham, D., Tian, J., … Eichele, G. (2006). The circadian rhythm of glucocorticoids is regulated by a gating mechanism residing in the adrenal cortical clock. Cell Metabolism, 4, 163–173. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2006.07.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Palmer, C. A., & Alfano, C. A. (2017). Sleep and emotion regulation: An organizing, integrative review. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 31, 6–16. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2015.12.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879. doi:10.3758/BRM.40.3.879CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401. doi:10.1177/014662167700100306CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raniti, M. B., Allen, N. B., Schwartz, O., Waloszek, J. M., Byrne, M. L., Woods, M. J., … Trinder, J. (2017). Sleep duration and sleep quality: Associations with depressive symptoms across adolescence. Behavioral Sleep Medicine, 15, 198.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roberts, R. E., & Duong, H. T. (2014). The prospective association between sleep deprivation and depression among adolescents. Sleep, 37, 239–244. doi:10.5665/sleep.3388CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rohde, P., Lewinsohn, P. M., Klein, D. N., Seeley, J. R., & Gau, J. M. (2012). Key characteristics of major depressive disorder occurring in childhood, adolescence, emerging adulthood, and adulthood. Clinical Psychological Science, 1, 41–53. doi:10.1177/2167702612457599CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, K. M., Murphy, M. L., Adam, E. K., Chen, E., & Miller, G. E. (2014). How stable are diurnal cortisol activity indices in healthy individuals? Evidence from three multi-wave studies. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 39, 184–193. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.09.016CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schuler, K. L., Ruggero, C. J., Goldstein, B. L., Perlman, G., Klein, D. N., & Kotov, R. (2017). Diurnal cortisol interacts with stressful events to prospectively predict depressive symptoms in adolescent girls. Journal of Adolescent Health, 61, 767–772. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.06.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shochat, T., Cohen-Zion, M., & Tzischinsky, O. (2014). Functional consequences of inadequate sleep in adolescents: A systematic review. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 18, 75–87. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2013.03.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soehner, A. M., Kaplan, K. A., & Harvey, A. G. (2014). Prevalence and clinical correlates of co-occurring insomnia and hypersomnia symptoms in depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 167(Suppl. C), 93–97. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.05.060CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stalder, T., Kirschbaum, C., Kudielka, B. M., Adam, E. K., Pruessner, J. C., Wüst, S., … Hellhammer, D. H. (2016). Assessment of the cortisol awakening response: Expert consensus guidelines. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 63, 414–432. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.10.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stockings, E., Degenhardt, L., Lee, Y. Y., Mihalopoulos, C., Liu, A., Hobbs, M., & Patton, G. (2015). Symptom screening scales for detecting major depressive disorder in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis of reliability, validity and diagnostic utility. Journal of Affective Disorders, 174(Suppl. C), 447–463. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2014.11.061CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Suchecki, D., Lobo, L., Hipólide, D., & Tufik, S. (1998). Increased ACTH and corticosterone secretion induced by different methods of paradoxical sleep deprivation. Journal of Sleep Research, 7, 276–281. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2869.1998.00122.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
TADS Team. (2007). The Treatment for Adolescents with Depression Study (TADS): Long-term effectiveness and safety outcomes. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 1132–1143. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.10.1132CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tsigos, C., & Chrousos, G. P. (2002). Hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, neuroendocrine factors and stress. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53, 865–871. doi:10.1016/S0022-3999(02)00429-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
US Census Bureau. (2009). American Community Survey: Los Angeles Demographics. Retrieved December 19, 2018, from https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/community_facts.xhtml?src=bkmkGoogle Scholar
van Dalfsen, J. H., & Markus, C. R. (2018). The influence of sleep on human hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis reactivity: A systematic review. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 39, 187–194.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vrshek-Schallhorn, S., Doane, L. D., Mineka, S., Zinbarg, R. E., Craske, M. G., & Adam, E. K. (2013). The cortisol awakening response predicts major depression: Predictive stability over a 4-year follow-up and effect of depression history. Psychological Medicine, 43, 483–493. doi:10.1017/S0033291712001213CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whiteford, H. A., Degenhardt, L., Rehm, J., Baxter, A. J., Ferrari, A. J., Erskine, H. E., … Vos, T. (2013). Global burden of disease attributable to mental and substance use disorders: Findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet, 382, 1575–1586. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61611-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wüst, S., Federenko, I., Hellhammer, D. H., & Kirschbaum, C. (2000). Genetic factors, perceived chronic stress, and the free cortisol response to awakening. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 707.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ye, Y., Zhang, Y., Chen, J., Liu, J., Li, X., Liu, Y., … Jiang, X.-J. (2015). Internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia (ICBT-i) improves comorbid anxiety and depression—A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. PLOS ONE, 10, e0142258. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0142258CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zeiders, K. H., Doane, L. D., & Adam, E. K. (2011). Reciprocal relations between objectively measured sleep patterns and diurnal cortisol rhythms in late adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48, 566–571. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.08.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed