Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-p9bg8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T09:32:52.548Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Substance use to regulate intense posttraumatic shame in individuals with childhood abuse and neglect

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 June 2016

Julia Holl ,
Sebastian Wolff ,
Maren Schumacher ,
Anja Höcker ,
Elisabeth A. Arens ,
Gabriela Spindler ,
Malte Stopsack ,
Jonna Südhof ,
Philipp Hiller  and
Michael Klein
...Show all authors
Julia Holl*
Affiliation:
Ruprecht–Karls–University Heidelberg
Sebastian Wolff
Affiliation:
Ruprecht–Karls–University Heidelberg
Maren Schumacher
Affiliation:
Ruprecht–Karls–University Heidelberg
Anja Höcker
Affiliation:
University of Hamburg
Elisabeth A. Arens
Affiliation:
Goethe University, Frankfurt/Main
Gabriela Spindler
Affiliation:
Ruprecht–Karls–University Heidelberg
Malte Stopsack
Affiliation:
Ruprecht–Karls–University Heidelberg
Jonna Südhof
Affiliation:
Ruprecht–Karls–University Heidelberg
Philipp Hiller
Affiliation:
University of Hamburg
Michael Klein
Affiliation:
Catholic University of Applied Sciences, Cologne
Ingo Schäfer
Affiliation:
University of Hamburg
Sven Barnow
Affiliation:
Ruprecht–Karls–University Heidelberg
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Julia Holl, Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Ruprechts-Karls-University Heidelberg, Hauptstrasse 47-51, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany; E-mail: julia.holl@psychologie.uni-heidelberg.de.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Childhood abuse and neglect (CAN) is considered as a risk factor for substance use disorder (SUD). Based on the drinking to cope model, this study investigated the association of two trauma-relevant emotions (shame and sadness) and substance use. Using ecological momentary assessment we compared real-time emotion regulation in situations with high and low intensity of shame and sadness in currently abstinent patients with CAN and lifetime SUD (traumaSUD group), healthy controls with CAN (traumaHC group), and without CAN (nontraumaHC group). Multilevel analysis showed a positive linear relationship between high intensity of both emotions and substance use for all groups. The traumaSUD group showed heightened substance use in low, as well as in high, intensity of shame and sadness. In addition, we found an interaction between type of emotion, intensity, and group: the traumaHC group exhibited a fourfold increased risk for substance use in high intense shame situations relative to the traumaSUD group. Our findings provide evidence for the drinking to cope model. The traumaSUD group showed a reduced distress tolerance for variable intensity of negative emotions. The differential effect of intense shame for the traumaHC group emphazises its potential role in the development of SUD following CAN. In addition, shame can be considered a relevant focus for therapeutic preinterventions and interventions for SUD after CAN.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 29 , Issue 3 , August 2017 , pp. 737 - 749
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This research was supported by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung 01KR1203B). The authors thank all participants who took part in this study, all cooperating clinical institutions, and Dr. Halina Sklenarova and Andreas B. Neubauer for data analysis support. The CANSAS Study Group members are Ingo Schäfer (Coordinator), Sven Barnow, Monika Bullinger, Martin Driessen, Martin Härter, Phillip Hiller, Thomas Hillemacher, Michael Klein, Christoph Muhtz, Ulrike Ravens-Sieberer, Norbert Scherbaum, Rainer Thomasius, Barbara Schneider, Karl Wegscheider, and Silke Pawils.

References

Aldinger, M., Stopsack, M., Ulrich, I., Appel, K., Reinelt, E., Wolff, S., et al. (2014). Neuroticism developmental courses—Implications for depression, anxiety, and everyday emotional experience: A prospective study from adolescence to young adulthood. BMC Psychiatry, 14, 210.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV. Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Amstadter, A. B., & Vernon, L. L. (2008). Emotional reactions during and after trauma: A comparison of trauma types. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, & Trauma, 16, 391–408.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrews, B. (1995). Bodily shame as a mediator between abusive experiences and depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 277–285.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andrews, B., Brewin, C. R., Rose, S., & Kirk, M. (2000). Predicting PTSD symptoms in victims of violent crime: The role of shame, anger, and childhood abuse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 69–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Badour, C. L., Resnick, H. S., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2015). Associations between specific negative emotions and DSM-5 PTSD among a national sample of interpersonal trauma survivors. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Advance online publication.Google ScholarPubMed
Bailey, K., Webster, R., Baker, A. L., & Kavanagh, D. J. (2012). Exposure to dysfunctional parenting and trauma events and posttraumatic stress profiles among a treatment sample with coexisting depression and alcohol use problems. Drug and Alcohol Review, 31, 529–537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Banducci, A. N., Hoffman, E., Lejuez, C. W., & Koenen, K. C. (2014a). The relationship between child abuse and negative outcomes among substance users: Psychopathology, health, and comorbidities. Addictive Behaviors, 39, 1522–1527.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Banducci, A. N., Hoffman, E. M., Lejuez, C. W., & Koenen, K. C. (2014b). The impact of childhood abuse on inpatient substance users: Specific links with risky sex, aggression, and emotion dysregulation. Child, Abuse, & Neglect, 38, 928–938.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnow, S. (2014). Gefühle im Griff!: Wozu man Emotionen braucht und wie man sie reguliert. Berlin: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnow, S., Löw, C. A., Dodek, A., & Stopsack, M. (2014). Managing emotions—Emotions under control. Psychotherapie, Psychosomatik, medizinische Psychologie, 64, 284–289.Google ScholarPubMed
Baskerville, N. B., Struik, L. L., Hammond, D., Guindon, G. E., Norman, C. D., Whittaker, R., et al. (2015). Effect of a mobile phone intervention on quitting smoking in a young adult population of smokers: Randomized controlled trial study protocol. JMIR Research Protocols, 4, e10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beckjord, E., & Shiffman, S. (2014). Background for real-time monitoring and intervention related to alcohol use. Alcohol Research: Current Reviews, 36, 9–18.Google ScholarPubMed
Bell, H., Busch, B. N., & DiNitto, D. (2006). Can you ask that over the telephone? Conducting sensitive or controversial research using random-digit dialing. Medicine and Law, 25, 59–81.Google ScholarPubMed
Bernstein, D. P., & Fink, L. (1998). Childhood Trauma Questionnaire: A retrospective self-report manual. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Bolger, N., & Laurenceau, J.-P. (2013). Intensive longitudinal methods: An introduction to diary and experience sampling research. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bradley, B., DeFife, J. A., Guarnaccia, C., Phifer, J., Fani, N., Ressler, K. J., et al. (2011). Emotion dysregulation and negative affect: Association with psychiatric symptoms. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 72, 685–691.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brans, K., & Verduyn, P. (2014). Intensity and duration of negative emotions: Comparing the role of appraisals and regulation strategies. PLOS ONE, 9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, R. A., Lejuez, C. W., Kahler, C. W., & Strong, D. R. (2002). Distress tolerance and duration of past smoking cessation attempts. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 180–185.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buckingham, E. T., & Daniolos, P. (2013). Longitudinal outcomes for victims of child abuse. Current Psychiatry Reports, 15, 342.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Budden, A. (2009). The role of shame in posttraumatic stress disorder: A proposal for a socio-emotional model for DSM-V. Social Science and Medicine, 69, 1032–1039.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carr, C. P., Martins, C. M., Stingel, A. M., Lemgruber, V. B., & Juruena, M. F. (2013). The role of early life stress in adult psychiatric disorders: A systematic review according to childhood trauma subtypes. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 201, 1007–1020.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Choi, J. Y., Choi, Y. M., Gim, M. S., Park, J. H., & Park, S. H. (2014). The effects of childhood abuse on symptom complexity in a clinical sample: Mediating effects of emotion regulation difficulties. Child, Abuse, & Neglect, 38, 1313–1319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cloitre, M., Stovall-McClough, C., Zorbas, P., & Charuvastra, A. (2008). Attachment organization, emotion regulation, and expectations of support in a clinical sample of women with childhood abuse histories. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21, 282–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cook, A., Spinazzola, J., Ford, J., Lanktree, C., Blaustein, M., Cloitre, M., et al. (2005). Complex trauma in children and adolescents. Psychiatric Annals, 35, 390–398.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, M. L., Frone, M. R., Russell, M., & Mudar, P. (1995). Drinking to regulate positive and negative emotions: A motivational model of alcohol use. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 990–1005.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corrigan, F. M., Fisher, J. J., & Nutt, D. J. (2011). Autonomic dysregulation and the Window of Tolerance model of the effects of complex emotional trauma. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 25, 17–25.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coyle, E., Karatzias, T., Summers, A., & Power, M. (2014). Emotions and emotion regulation in survivors of childhood sexual abuse: The importance of “disgust” in traumatic stress and psychopathology. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dalgleish, T., & Power, M. J. (2004). Emotion-specific and emotion-non-specific components of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Implications for a taxonomy of related psychopathology. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1069–1088.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Bellis, M. D. (2002). Developmental traumatology: A contributory mechanism for alcohol and substance use disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 27, 155–170.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennis, M. L., Scott, C. K., Funk, R. R., & Nicholson, L. (2015). A pilot study to examine the feasibility and potential effectiveness of using smartphones to provide recovery support for adolescents. Substance Abuse, 36, 486–492.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dermody, S. S., Cheong, J., & Manuck, S. (2013). An evaluation of the stress-negative affect model in explaining alcohol use: The role of components of negative affect and coping style. Substance Use & Misuse, 48, 297–308.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dorahy, M. J., & Clearwater, K. (2012). Shame and guilt in men exposed to childhood sexual abuse: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 21, 155–175.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dorn, C., Spindler, G., Kullik, A., Petermann, F., & Barnow, S. (2013). Erfassung von Emotionsregulationsstrategien–eine Übersicht. Psychologische Rundschau, 64, 217–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dvir, Y., Ford, J. D., Hill, M., & Frazier, J. A. (2014). Childhood maltreatment, emotional dysregulation, and psychiatric comorbidities. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 22, 149–161.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dvorak, R. D., Pearson, M. R., & Day, A. M. (2014). Ecological momentary assessment of acute alcohol use disorder symptoms: Associations with mood, motives, and use on planned drinking days. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 22, 285–297.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ebner-Priemer, U. W., & Trull, T. J. (2009). Ecological momentary assessment of mood disorders and mood dysregulation. Psychological Assessment, 21, 463–475.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ehring, T., & Quack, D. (2010). Emotion regulation difficulties in trauma survivors: The role of trauma type and PTSD symptom severity. Behavior Therapy, 41, 587–598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Epstein, D. H., & Preston, K. L. (2010). Daily life hour by hour, with and without cocaine: An ecological momentary assessment study. Psychopharmacology, 211, 223–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farrugia, P. L., Mills, K. L., Barrett, E., Back, S. E., Teesson, M., Baker, A., et al. (2011). Childhood trauma among individuals with co-morbid substance use and post traumatic stress disorder. Mental Health and Substance Use: Dual Diagnosis, 4, 314–326.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Faulkner, B., Goldstein, A. L., & Wekerle, C. (2014). Pathways from childhood maltreatment to emerging adulthood: Investigating trauma-mediated substance use and dating violence outcomes among child protective services-involved youth. Child Maltreatment, 19, 219–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feiring, C., & Taska, L. (2005). The persistence of shame following sexual abuse: A longitudinal look at risk and recovery. Child Maltreatment, 10, 337–349.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feiring, C., Taska, L., & Chen, K. (2002). Trying to understand why horrible things happen: Attribution, shame, and symptom development following sexual abuse. Child Maltreatment, 7, 26–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feiring, C., Taska, L., & Lewis, M. (2002). Adjustment following sexual abuse discovery: The role of shame and attributional style. Developmental Psychology, 38, 79–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fetzner, M. G., McMillan, K. A., Sareen, J., & Asmundson, G. J. (2011). What is the association between traumatic life events and alcohol abuse/dependence in people with and without PTSD? Findings from a nationally representative sample. Depression and Anxiety, 28, 632–638.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
First, M. B., Spitzer, R. L., Gibbon, M., & Williams, J. B. W. (2002). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR Axis I Disorders, research version, patient edition (SCID-I/P). New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute, Biometrics Research.Google Scholar
Fowke, A., Ross, S., & Ashcroft, K. (2012). Childhood maltreatment and internalized shame in adults with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 19, 450–457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gerhard, T. (2008). Bias: Considerations for research practice. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 65, 2159–2168.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilbert, P., & Gerlsma, C. (1999). Recall of shame and favouritism in relation to psychopathology. British Journal of Clinical Psychology/British Psychological Society, 38, 357–373.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Irons, C., Bhundia, R., Christie, R., Broomhead, C., et al. (2010). Self-harm in a mixed clinical population: The roles of self-criticism, shame, and social rank. British Journal of Clinical Psychology/British Psychological Society, 49, 563–576.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gil-Rivas, V., Prause, J., & Grella, C. E. (2009). Substance use after residential treatment among individuals with co-occurring disorders: The role of anxiety/depressive symptoms and trauma exposure. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors: Journal of the Society of Psychologists in Addictive Behaviors, 23, 303–314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Giroux, D., Bacon, S., King, D. K., Dulin, P., & Gonzalez, V. (2014). Examining perceptions of a smartphone-based intervention system for alcohol use disorders. Telemedicine Journal and e-Health: Official Journal of the American Telemedicine Association, 20, 923–929.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glaser, J. P., van Os, J., Portegijs, P. J., & Myin-Germeys, I. (2006). Childhood trauma and emotional reactivity to daily life stress in adult frequent attenders of general practitioners. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 61, 229–236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldsmith, R. E., Chesney, S. A., Heath, N. M., & Barlow, M. R. (2013). Emotion regulation difficulties mediate associations between betrayal trauma and symptoms of posttraumatic stress, depression, and anxiety. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26, 376–384.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goodman, A. (2008). Neurobiology of addiction: An integrative review. Biochemical Pharmacology, 75, 266–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2, 271–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gross, J. J. (Ed.) (2007). Handbook of emotion regulation. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Harder, V. S., Ayer, L. A., Rose, G. L., Naylor, M. R., & Helzer, J. E. (2014). Alcohol, moods and male–female differences: Daily interactive voice response over 6 months. Alcohol and Alcoholism, 49, 60–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hathaway, L. M., Boals, A., & Banks, J. B. (2010). PTSD symptoms and dominant emotional response to a traumatic event: An examination of DSM-IV Criterion A2. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 23, 119–126.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hedeker, D., Mermelstein, R. J., Berbaum, M. L., & Campbell, R. T. (2009). Modeling mood variation associated with smoking: An application of a heterogeneous mixed-effects model for analysis of ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data. Addiction, 104, 297–307.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heinz, A., Beck, A., Grüsser, S. M., Grace, A. A., & Wrase, J. (2009). Identifying the neural circuitry of alcohol craving and relapse vulnerability. Addiction Biology, 14, 108–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holmes, E. A., Grey, N., & Young, K. A. (2005). Intrusive images and “hotspots” of trauma memories in posttraumatic stress disorder: An exploratory investigation of emotions and cognitive themes. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 36, 3–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holt, L. J., Litt, M. D., & Cooney, N. L. (2012). Prospective analysis of early lapse to drinking and smoking among individuals in concurrent alcohol and tobacco treatment. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 26, 561–572.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hussong, A. M. (2007). Predictors of drinking immediacy following daily sadness: An application of survival analysis to experience sampling data. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 1054–1065.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hussong, A. M., Hicks, R. E., Levy, S. A., & Curran, P. J. (2001). Specifying the relations between affect and heavy alcohol use among young adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 449–461.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaiser, A. J., Milich, R., Lynam, D. R., & Charnigo, R. J. (2012). Negative urgency, distress tolerance, and substance abuse among college students. Addictive Behaviors, 37, 1075–1083.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kashdan, T. B., Uswatte, G., Steger, M. F., & Julian, T. (2006). Fragile self-esteem and affective instability in posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1609–1619.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kendler, K. S., Bulik, C. M., Silberg, J., Hettema, J. M., Myers, J., & Prescott, C. A. (2000). Childhood sexual abuse and adult psychiatric and substance use disorders in women: An epidemiological and cotwin control analysis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 953–959.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Khantzian, E. J. (1985). The self-medication hypothesis of addictive disorders: Focus on heroin and cocaine dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 1259–1264.Google ScholarPubMed
Kilpatrick, D. G., Acierno, R., Saunders, B., Resnick, H. S., Best, C. L., & Schnurr, P. P. (2000). Risk factors for adolescent substance abuse and dependence: Data from a national sample. Journal of Consultant and Clinical Psychology, 68, 19–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim-Spoon, J., Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2013). A longitudinal study of emotion regulation, emotion lability-negativity, and internalizing symptomatology in maltreated and nonmaltreated children. Child Development, 84, 512–527.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klanecky, A. K., & McChargue, D. E. (2009). Emotional reactivity across individuals with varying trauma and substance dependence histories. Mental Health and Substance Use, 2, 191–202.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, D. A., Scragg, P., & Turner, S. (2001). The role of shame and guilt in traumatic events: A clinical model of shame-based and guilt-based PTSD. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 74, 451–466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leyro, T. M., Zvolensky, M. J., & Bernstein, A. (2010). Distress tolerance and psychopathological symptoms and disorders: A review of the empirical literature among adults. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 576–600.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mason, W. A., Hitch, J. E., & Spoth, R. L. (2009). Longitudinal relations among negative affect, substance use, and peer deviance during the transition from middle to late adolescence. Substance Use & Misuse, 44, 1142–1159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Melville, J. D., Kellogg, N. D., Perez, N., & Lukefahr, J. L. (2014). Assessment for self-blame and trauma symptoms during the medical evaluation of suspected sexual abuse. Child, Abuse, & Neglect, 38, 851–857.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Min, M., Farkas, K., Minnes, S., & Singer, L. T. (2007). Impact of childhood abuse and neglect on substance abuse and psychological distress in adulthood. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 833–844.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Molnar, B. E., Buka, S. L., & Kessler, R. C. (2001). Child sexual abuse and subsequent psychopathology: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 753–760.Google ScholarPubMed
Najavits, L. M. (Ed.) (2002). Seeking safety: A treatment manual for PTSD and substance abuse. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Najavits, L. M., & Hien, D. (2013). Helping vulnerable populations: A comprehensive review of the treatment outcome literature on substance use disorder and PTSD. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69, 433–479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Negrao, C. II, Bonanno, G. A., Noll, J. G., Putnam, F. W., & Trickett, P. K. (2005). Shame, humiliation, and childhood sexual abuse: Distinct contributions and emotional coherence. Child Maltreatment, 10, 350–363.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ottowitz, W. E., Dougherty, D. D., Sirota, A., Niaura, R., Rauch, S. L., & Brown, W. A. (2004). Neural and endocrine correlates of sadness in women: Implications for neural network regulation of HPA activity. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 16, 446–455.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Price, C. J., & Herting, J. R. (2013). Changes in post traumatic stress symptoms among women in substance use disorder treatment: The mediating role of bodily dissociation and emotion regulation. Substance Abuse: Research and Treatment, 7, 147–153.Google ScholarPubMed
Price, M., Higa-McMillan, C., Kim, S., & Frueh, B. C. (2013). Trauma experience in children and adolescents: An assessment of the effects of trauma type and role of interpersonal proximity. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 27, 652–660.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ratcliffe, M., Ruddell, M., & Smith, B. (2014). What is a “sense of foreshortened future?” A phenomenological study of trauma, trust, and time. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1026.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Reed, P. L., Anthony, J. C., & Breslau, N. (2007). Incidence of drug problems in young adults exposed to trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: Do early life experiences and predispositions matter? Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 1435–1442.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rizvi, S. L., Kaysen, D., Gutner, C. A., Griffin, M. G., & Resick, P. A. (2008). Beyond fear: The role of peritraumatic responses in posttraumatic stress and depressive symptoms among female crime victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 23, 853–868.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scherer, K. R., & Wallbott, H. G. (1994). Evidence for universality and cultural variation of differential emotion response patterning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 310–328.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheppes, G., Scheibe, S., Suri, G., & Gross, J. J. (2011). Emotion-regulation choice. Psychological Science, 22, 1391–1396.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheppes, G., Scheibe, S., Suri, G., Radu, P., Blechert, J., & Gross, J. J. (2014). Emotion regulation choice: A conceptual framework and supporting evidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143, 163–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shiffman, S. (2009). Ecological momentary assessment (EMA) in studies of substance use. Psychological Assessment, 21, 486–497.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shiffman, S., Stone, A. A., & Hufford, M. R. (2008). Ecological momentary assessment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 1–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (2003). Applied longitudinal data analysis: Modeling change and event occurrence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spindler, G., Stopsack, M., Aldinger, M., Grabe, H. J., & Barnow, S. (2015). What about the “ups and downs” in our daily life? The influence of affective instability on mental health. Motivation and Emotion, 40, 148–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, A. A. (Ed.) (2007). The science of real-time data capture: Self-reports in health research. Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, A. A., & Broderick, J. E. (2007). Real-time data collection for pain: Appraisal and current status. Pain Medicine, 8, 85–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stone, A. A., & Shiffman, S. (2002). Capturing momentary, self-report data: A proposal for reporting guidelines. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 24, 236–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sudheimer, K. D., Abelson, J. L., Taylor, S. F., Martis, B., Welsh, R. C., Warner, C., et al. (2013). Exogenous glucocorticoids decrease subgenual cingulate activity evoked by sadness. Neuropsychopharmacology, 38, 826–845.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tangney, J. P. (1991). Moral affect: The good, the bad, and the ugly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 598–607.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tangney, J. P., & Dearing, R. L. (2004). Shame and guilt. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Tangney, J. P., Wagner, P., & Gramzow, R. (1992). Proneness to shame, proneness to guilt, and psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 469–478.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Terr, L. C. (1991). Childhood traumas: An outline and overview. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 10–20.Google ScholarPubMed
Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004). Putting the self into self-conscious emotions: A theoretical model. Psychological Inquiry, 15, 103–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trull, T. J., & Ebner-Priemer, U. (2013). Ambulatory assessment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9, 151–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tull, M. T., Barrett, H. M., McMillan, E. S., & Roemer, L. (2007). A preliminary investigation of the relationship between emotion regulation difficulties and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Behavior Therapy, 38, 303–313.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ubhi, H. K., Michie, S., Kotz, D., Wong, W. C., & West, R. (2015). A mobile app to aid smoking cessation: Preliminary evaluation of SmokeFree28. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 17, e17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ullman, S. E., Filipas, H. H., Townsend, S. M., & Starzynski, L. L. (2005). Trauma exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder and problem drinking in sexual assault survivors. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 66, 610–619.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ullman, S. E., Peter-Hagene, L. C., & Relyea, M. (2014). Coping, emotion regulation, and self-blame as mediators of sexual abuse and psychological symptoms in adult sexual assault. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 23, 74–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ullman, S. E., Relyea, M., Peter-Hagene, L., & Vasquez, A. L. (2013). Trauma histories, substance use coping, PTSD, and problem substance use among sexual assault victims. Addictive Behaviors, 38, 2219–2223.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verduyn, P., Van Mechelen, I., Kross, E., Chezzi, C., & Van Bever, F. (2012). The relationship between self-distancing and the duration of negative and positive emotional experiences in daily life. Emotion, 12, 1248–1263.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weiss, N. H., Tull, M. T., Anestis, M. D., & Gratz, K. L. (2013). The relative and unique contributions of emotion dysregulation and impulsivity to posttraumatic stress disorder among substance dependent inpatients. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 128, 45–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weiss, N. H., Tull, M. T., Lavender, J., & Gratz, K. L. (2013). Role of emotion dysregulation in the relationship between childhood abuse and probable PTSD in a sample of substance abusers. Child, Abuse, & Neglect, 37, 944–954.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiechelt, S. A. (2007). The specter of shame in substance misuse. Substance Use & Misuse, 42, 399–409.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, J. P., Drozdek, B., & Turkovic, S. (2006). Posttraumatic shame and guilt. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 7, 122–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wingenfeld, K., Spitzer, C., Mensebach, C., Grabe, H. J., Hill, A., Gast, U., et al. (2010). Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ): Preliminary psychometric properties [in German]. Psychotherapie, Psychosomatik, medizinische Psychologie, 60, e13.Google ScholarPubMed
Witkiewitz, K., Lustyk, M. K. B., & Bowen, S. (2013). Retraining the addicted brain: A review of hypothesized neurobiological mechanisms of mindfulness-based relapse prevention. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 27, 351–365.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wray, T. B., Merrill, J. E., & Monti, P. M. (2014). Using ecological momentary assessment (EMA) to assess situation-level predictors of alcohol use and alcohol-related consequences. Alcohol Research. Current Reviews, 36, 19–27.Google ScholarPubMed
Wu, N. S., Schairer, L. C., Dellor, E., & Grella, C. (2010). Childhood trauma and health outcomes in adults with comorbid substance abuse and mental health disorders. Addictive Behaviors, 35, 68–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zheng, Y., Cleveland, H. H., Molenaar, P. C. M., & Harris, K. S. (2015). An alternative framework to investigating and understanding intraindividual processes in substance abuse recovery: An idiographic approach and demonstration. Evaluation Review, 39, 229–254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed