Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-mkpzs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T07:59:55.411Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Unpacking complexities in ethnic–racial socialization in transracial adoptive families: A process-oriented transactional system

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 May 2021

Ellen E. Pinderhughes Open the ORCID record for Ellen E. Pinderhughes [Opens in a new window] ,
Jessica A. K. Matthews ,
Xian Zhang  and
Judith C. Scott Open the ORCID record for Judith C. Scott [Opens in a new window]
Ellen E. Pinderhughes*
Affiliation:
Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA
Jessica A. K. Matthews
Affiliation:
Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA
Xian Zhang
Affiliation:
Tufts University, Medford, MA, USA
Judith C. Scott
Affiliation:
Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: Ellen E. Pinderhughes, Eliot-Pearson Department of Child Study and Human Development, Tufts University, 105 College Avenue, Medford, MA 02155. Email: ellen.pinderhughes@tufts.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Over 50% of adoptions are transracial, involving primarily White parents and children of color from different ethnic or racial backgrounds. Transracial adoptive (TRA) parents are tasked with providing ethnic–racial socialization processes (ERS) to support TRA adoptees’ ethnic–racial identity development and prepare them to cope with ethnic–racial discrimination. However, unlike nonadoptive families of color, TRA parents lack shared cultural history with adoptees and have limited experience navigating racial discrimination. Knowledge of ERS among TRA families has centered on unidirectional processes between parenting constructs, ERS processes, and children's functioning. However, ERS processes in this population have complexities and nuances that warrant more sensitive and robust conceptualization. This paper proposes a process-oriented dynamic ecological model of the system of ERS, situating transacting processes in and across multiple family levels (parent, adoptee, family) and incorporating developmental and contextual considerations. With its framing of the complexities in ERS among TRA families, the model offers three contributions: a conceptual organization of parenting constructs related to ERS, a more robust understanding of ERS processes that inform how parents provide ERS, and framing of transacting processes within and between parenting constructs, ERS processes, and children's functioning. Implications for research, policy, and practice are discussed.

Keywords

adoptionadopteesethnic–racial socializationparentingtransracial adoption
Type
Special Issue Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 33 , Special Issue 2: Honoring the Legacy of Ed Zigler's Lifetime Contributions to Science, Society, and Child Wellbeing , May 2021 , pp. 493 - 505
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Anderson, K. N., Lee, R. M., Rueter, M. A., & Kim, O. M. (2015). Associations between discussions of racial and ethnic differences in internationally adoptive families and delinquent behavior among Korean adopted adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 51, 66–73. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.02.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baden, A. L. (2015). Culture camp, ethnic identity, and adoption socialization for Korean adoptees: A pretest and posttest study: culture camp. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2015, 19–31. doi:10.1002/cad.20119CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baden, A. L. (2016). Do you know your real parents?” and other adoption microaggressions. Adoption Quarterly, 19, 1–25. doi:10.1080/10926755.2015.1026012CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baden, A. L., Zhang, X., Matthews, J., White, E., Harrington, E. A., Kitchen, A., … Pinderhughes, E. E. (2020). Adoption and Racial Microaggressions in Diverse Communities: Experiences of Adoptive Parents of Children from China [Manuscript Submitted for Publication].Google Scholar
Barn, R. (2013). ‘Doing the right thing’: Transracial adoption in the USA. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 36, 1273–1291. doi:10.1080/01419870.2013.770543CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bebiroglu, N., & Pinderhughes, E. E. (2012). Mothers raising daughters: New complexities in cultural socialization for children adopted from China. Adoption Quarterly, 15, 116–139. doi:10.1080/10926755.2012.681596CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berbery, M., & O'Brien, K. (2011). Predictors of white adoptive parents’ cultural and racial socialization behaviors with their Asian adopted children. Adoption Quarterly, 14, 284–304. doi:10.1080/10926755.2011.628265CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boykin, A. W., & Toms, F. D. (1985). Black child socialization: A conceptual framework. In McAdoo, H. P., & McAdoo, J. L. (Eds.), Black children: Social, educational, and parental environments (Vol. 1–72, pp. 33–51). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.Google Scholar
Brodzinsky, D. (2006). Family structural openness and communication openness as predictors in the adjustment of adopted children. Adoption Quarterly, 9, 1–18. doi:10.1300/J145v09n04_01CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brodzinsky, D. M. (2011). Children's understanding of adoption: Developmental and clinical implications. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 42, 200–207. doi:10.1037/a0022415CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burke, M. (2008). Colorism. In Darity, W. A. (Ed.), International encyclopedia of the social sciences (Vol. 2, pp. 17–18). Farmington Hills: Thomson Gale.Google Scholar
Chang, S. H. (2016). Raising mixed race: Multiracial Asian children in a post-racial world. New York and London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.Google Scholar
Chen, Y. L., Lamborn, S. D., & Lu, H. (2017). Euro-American parents’ socialization for the multiple identities of children adopted from China. International Perspectives in Psychology: Research, Practice, Consultation, 6, 152–164. doi:10.1037/ipp0000051CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Demo, D. H., & Hughes, M. (1990). Socialization and racial identity among Black Americans. Social Psychology Quarterly, 53, 364. doi:10.2307/2786741CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Docan-Morgan, S. (2011). “‘They don't know what it's like to be in my shoes’”: Topic avoidance about race in transracially adoptive families. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 28, 336–355. doi:10.1177/0265407510382177CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goar, C., Davis, J. L., & Manago, B. (2016). Discursive entwinement: How white transracially adoptive parents navigate race. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 1–17. doi:10.1177/2332649216671954.Google Scholar
Goldberg, A. E., & Smith, J. Z. (2016). Predictors of race, adoption, and sexual orientation related socialization of adoptive parents of young children. Journal of Family Psychology, 30, 397–408. doi:10.1037/fam0000149CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grotevant, H. D., Dunbar, N., Kohler, J. K., & Esau, A. M. L. (2000). Adoptive identity: How contexts within and beyond the family shape developmental pathways. Family Relations, 49, 379–387. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2000.00379.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hague Conference on Private International Law (1993). 33: Convention of 29 May 1993 on Protection of Children and Co-operation in Respect of Intercountry Adoption, Contracting States.Google Scholar
Herman, E. (2008). Kinship by design: A history of adoption in the modern United States. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hrapczynski, K. M., & Leslie, L. A. (2018). Engagement in racial socialization among transracial adoptive families with white parents: Engagement in racial socialization. Family Relations, 67, 354–367. doi:10.1111/fare.12316CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, A. W., Anderson, K. N., & Lee, R. M. (2015). Let's talk about race and ethnicity: Cultural socialization, parenting quality, and ethnic identity development. Family Science, 6, 87–93. doi:10.1080/19424620.2015.1081007CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, D. L., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C., & Spicer, P. (2006). Parents’ ethnic–racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42, 747. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.747CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, D. L., Watford, J. A., & Del Toro, J. (2016). A transactional/ecological perspective on ethnic–racial identity, socialization, and discrimination. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 51, 1–41. doi:10.1016/bs.acdb.2016.05.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnston, K. E., Swim, J. K., Saltsman, B. M., Deater-Deckard, K., & Petrill, S. A. (2007). Mothers’ racial, ethnic, and cultural socialization of transracially adopted Asian children. Family Relations, 56, 390–402.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim, O. M., Reichwald, R., & Lee, R. M. (2013). Cultural socialization in families with adopted Korean adolescents: A mixed-method, multi-informant study. Journal of Adolescent Research, 28, 69–95. doi:10.1177/0743558411432636CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koh, B. D., Kim, J., & McRoy, R. (2017). Exploring Adoption-Specific Curricula in Undergraduate and Graduate Degree Programs. Adoption Quarterly, 20(3), 252–265. doi:10.1080/10926755.2017.1349698.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, R. M. (2003). The transracial adoption paradox: History, research, and counseling implications of cultural socialization. The Counseling Psychologist, 31, 711–744. doi:10.1177/0011000003258087CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, R. M., & Minnesota International Adoption Project (2010). Parental perceived discrimination as a postadoption risk factor for internationally adopted children and adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16, 493–500. doi:10.1037/a0020651CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, R. M., Grotevant, H. D., Hellerstedt, W. L., Gunnar, M. R., & Minnesota International Adoption Project Team (2006). Cultural socialization in families with internationally adopted children. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 571–580. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.20.4.571CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lee, J., Vonk, M. E., & Crolley-Simic, J. (2015a). A model of factors related to cultural and racial socialization practices among international transracial adoptive parents. Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services, 96, 141–147. doi:10.1606/1044-3894.2015.96.14CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, J., Vonk, M. E., & Crolley-Simic, J. (2015b). Religion and cultural and racial socialization among international transracial adoptive parents. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 24, 40–57. doi:10.1179/1053078915Z.00000000022CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, J., Vonk, M. E., Han, J., & Jung, S. (2018). A path analysis of a cultural and racial socialization model in international transracial adoption: Racial awareness, self-efficacy, and socialization practices. Children and Youth Services Review, 85, 333–340. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.01.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, S., Zhang, X., Boland, K., Kupa, J., Kimura, A., Liu, J., … Pinderhughes, E. E. (2020). Adoption microaggressions in the community and adoptive parents’ discussions with their adopted children. Medford, MA: Manuscript in preparation.Google Scholar
Leslie, L. A., Hrapczynski, K. M., & Young, J. L. (2019). Biracial Families Formed Through Adoption. In Nazarinia Roy, R., & Rollins, A. (Eds.), Biracial families (pp. 183–204). New York City: Springer International Publishing.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maddox, K. B. (2004). Perspectives on racial phenotypicality bias. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8, 383–401. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0804_4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Manzi, C., Ferrari, L., Rosnati, R., & Benet-Martinez, V. (2014). Bicultural identity integration of transracial adolescent adoptees: Antecedents and outcomes. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 45, 888–904. doi:10.1177/0022022114530495CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matthews, J. A. K., & Pinderhughes, E. (2016). Youth and teen ethnic identity among in-racial international placements. The 5th International Conference on Adoption Research, Auckland, New Zealand, January 7–11.Google Scholar
Mohanty, J. (2013). Ethnic and racial socialization and self-esteem of Asian adoptees: The mediating role of multiple identities. Journal of Adolescence, 36, 161–170. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.10.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mohanty, J., & Newhill, C. E. (2011). Asian adolescent and young adult adoptees’ psychological well-being: Examining the mediating role of marginality. Children and Youth Services Review, 33, 1189–1195. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.02.016CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Association of Black Social Workers. (1972). National Association of Black Social Workers Position Statement on Trans-Racial Adoptions. http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/nabsw.org/resource/resmgr/position_statements_papers/nabsw_trans-racial_adoption_.pdf.Google Scholar
Pinderhughes, E. E., & Brodzinsky, D. M. (2019). Parenting in Adoptive Families. In Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 1: children and parenting (3rd ed., pp. 322–367). New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinderhughes, E. E., Matthews, J. A. K., & Zhang, X. (2016). Ethnic identity formation and transracial and intercountry adoptions. In Fong, R., & McRoy, R. G. (Eds.), Transracial and intercountry adoption practices and policies: A resource for educators and clinicians (pp. 154–192). New York City: Columbia University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pinderhughes, E. E., & Pinderhughes, R. B. (2010). Before you pack: Developmental considerations in planning a heritage trip. In Jacobs, D., Ponte, I. C., & Wang, L. K. (Eds.), From home to homeland. St. Paul: Yeong and Yeong Press.Google Scholar
Pinderhughes, E. E., Zhang, X., & Agerbak, S. (2015). “American” or “Multiethnic”? family ethnic identity among transracial adoptive families, ethnic–racial socialization, and children's self-perception. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2015, 5–18. doi:10.1002/cad.20118CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richardson, H. B., & Goldberg, A. E. (2010). The intersection of multiple minority identities: Perspectives of white lesbian couples adopting racial/ethnic minority children. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 31, 340–353. doi:10.1375/anft.31.4.340CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Riley-Behringer, M., Groza, V., Tieman, W., & Juffer, F. (2014). Race and bicultural socialization in the Netherlands, Norway, and the United States of America in the adoptions of children from India. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20, 231–243. doi:10.1037/a0035324CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Samuels, G. M. (2009). “Being Raised by White People”: Navigating racial difference among adopted multiracial adults. Journal of Marriage and Family, 71, 80–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott, J. C., McDermott, E. R., Harris, A., Johnson, K. G., Pinderhughes, E. E., Spencer, M. B., & Umana-Taylor, A. J. (2020). Looking Through a Kaleidoscope: Considering Skin Color in Ethnic–Racial Socialization among U.S. Black and Latinx Youth [Under review].Google Scholar
Skinner-Drawz, Brooke A, Wrobel, Gretchen Miller, Grotevant, Harold D., & Von Korff, Lynn. (2011). The Role of Adoption Communicative Openness in Information Seeking Among Adoptees From Adolescence to Emerging Adulthood. Journal of Family Communication, 11(3), 181–197. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15267431003656587.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, D. T., Juarez, B. G., & Jacobson, C. K. (2011). White on black: Can white parents teach black adoptive children how to understand and cope with racism? Journal of Black Studies, 42, 1195–1230. doi:10.1177/0021934711404237CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spencer, M. B. (1985). Cultural cognition and social cognition as identity correlates of Black children's personal-social development. In Allen, W. R., Spencer, M. B., & Brookins, G. K. (Eds.), Beginnings: The social and affective development of black children (pp. 215–230). Mahwah: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Sue, D. W., Bucceri, J., Lin, A. I., Nadal, K. L., & Torino, G. C. (2009). Racial microaggressions and the Asian American experience. Asian American Journal of Psychology, S, 88–101. doi:10.1037/1948-1985.S.1.88CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., Bucceri, J. M., Holder, A. M. B., Nadal, K. L., & Esquilin, M. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62, 271–286. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tessler, R. C., Gamache, G., & Liu, L. (1999). West meets east: Americans adopt Chinese children. Boston: Greenwood Publishing Group.Google Scholar
Tuan, M., & Shiao, J. L. (2011). Choosing ethnicity, negotiating race: Korean adoptees in America. New York City: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Vandivere, S., Malm, K., & Radel, L. (2009). Adoption USA. A chartbook based on the 2007 national survey of adoptive parents. Washington, D. C: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. https://aspe.hhs.gov/report/adoption-usa-chartbook-based-2007-national-survey-adoptive-parents.Google Scholar
Wegar, K. (2000). Adoption, family ideology, and social stigma: Bias in community attitudes, adoption research, and practice. Family Relations, 49, 363–370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WIlson, D. Riley, D. & Lee, B., (2019). Building an adoption competent workforce: A review of the national adoption competency mental health training initiative. The Rudd Adoption Research Program Publication Series: The Future of Adoption. University of Massachusetts, Amherst. Retrieved from https://www.umass.edu/ruddchair/sites/default/files/rudd.wilson.et_al.pdf.Google Scholar
Wilson, S. A., & Summerhill-Coleman, L., (2013). Exploring birth countries: The mental health implications of heritage travel for children/adolescents adopted internationally. Adoption Quarterly, 16(3-4), 262–278. 10.1080/10926755.2013.790865.Google Scholar
Yando, R., Seitz, V., & Zigler, E. (1979). Intellectual and personality characteristics of children: Social-class and ethnic–group differences. Hove: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Zhang, X., Pinderhughes, E. E., & Matthews, J. A. K. (2020). Connecting to Birth Culture: A Phenomenological Approach to Understanding How Transracial Adoptive Parents Address Cultural Depth. Manuscript submitted for publication.Google Scholar
Zhang, X., & Pinderhughes, E. E. (2019). Depth in cultural socialization in families with children adopted from China. Family Process, 58, 114–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, E., Zhang, X., & Pinderhughes, E. E. (2019). “Your Skin's Not as Good as Us”: Microaggressions among transracially-adopted children from China. Adoption Quarterly, 1–23. doi:10.1080/10926755.2019.1675837Google Scholar
Zigler, E. (1969). Developmental versus difference theories of mental retardation and the problem of motivation. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 73, 536–556. Retrieved from https://login.ezproxy.library.tufts.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.tufts.edu/docview/615597846?accountid=14434.Google ScholarPubMed
Zigler, E. (1970). Social class and the socialization process. Review of Educational Research, 40, 87–110.Google Scholar
Zigler, E. (1976). A developmental psychologist's view of Operation Babylift. American Psychologist, 31, 329.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zigler, E., & Balla, D. (1982). Selecting outcome variables in evaluations of early childhood special education programs. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 1, 11–22. doi:10.1177/027112148200100406CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zigler, E., Balla, D., & Hodapp, R. (1984). On the definition and classification of mental retardation. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 89, 215–230.Google ScholarPubMed
Zigler, E., & Seitz, V. (1978). Changing trends in socialization theory and research: The dual nature of socialization theory and research sources of ideas and evidence. The American Behavioral Scientist (Pre-1986), 21, 731.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zigler, E. F., & Stevenson, M. F. (1993). Children in a changing world: Development and social issues. Monterey: Thomson Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.Google Scholar
Zill, N. (2017). The changing face of adoption in the United States. Institute for Family Studies. Charlottesville. https://ifstudies.org/blog/the-changing-face-of-adoption-in-the-united-states.Google Scholar