Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-13T00:48:26.491Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Using an adoption–biological family design to examine associations between maternal trauma, maternal depressive symptoms, and child internalizing and externalizing behaviors

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 November 2017

Aleksandria Perez Grabow ,
Atika Khurana ,
Misaki N. Natsuaki ,
Jenae M. Neiderhiser ,
Gordon T. Harold ,
Daniel S. Shaw ,
Jody M. Ganiban ,
David Reiss  and
Leslie D. Leve
Aleksandria Perez Grabow
Affiliation:
University of Oregon
Atika Khurana
Affiliation:
University of Oregon
Misaki N. Natsuaki
Affiliation:
University of California, Riverside
Jenae M. Neiderhiser
Affiliation:
Pennsylvania State University
Gordon T. Harold
Affiliation:
University of Sussex University of Dublin
Daniel S. Shaw
Affiliation:
University of Pittsburgh
Jody M. Ganiban
Affiliation:
George Washington University
David Reiss
Affiliation:
Yale Child Study Center
Leslie D. Leve*
Affiliation:
University of Oregon
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Leslie D. Leve, Prevention Science Institute, 6217, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403; E-mail: leve@uoregon.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Maternal trauma is a complex risk factor that has been linked to adverse child outcomes, yet the mechanisms underlying this association are not well understood. This study, which included adoptive and biological families, examined the heritable and environmental mechanisms by which maternal trauma and associated depressive symptoms are linked to child internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Path analyses were used to analyze data from 541 adoptive mother–adopted child (AM–AC) dyads and 126 biological mother–biological child (BM–BC) dyads; the two family types were linked through the same biological mother. Rearing mother's trauma was associated with child internalizing and externalizing behaviors in AM–AC and BM–BC dyads, and this association was mediated by rearing mothers’ depressive symptoms, with the exception of biological child externalizing behavior, for which biological mother trauma had a direct influence only. Significant associations between maternal trauma and child behavior in dyads that share only environment (i.e., AM–AC dyads) suggest an environmental mechanism of influence for maternal trauma. Significant associations were also observed between maternal depressive symptoms and child internalizing and externalizing behavior in dyads that were only genetically related, with no shared environment (i.e., BM–AC dyads), suggesting a heritable pathway of influence via maternal depressive symptoms.

Type
Special Issue Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 29 , Special Issue 5: Biological and Behavioral Effects of Early Adversity on Multiple Levels of Development , December 2017 , pp. 1707 - 1720
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This project was supported by Grants R01 and R56 HD042608 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development and NIDA; NIH, US PHS; R01 DA020585 from NIDA, NIMH, and OBSSR; NIH, US PHS; R01 MH092118 from NIMH; and R01 DA035062 from NIDA. Additional support for the writing of this report was provided by P50 DA035763, NIDA, US PHS. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institute of Child Health & Human Development or the National Institutes of Health. We thank the birth parents and adoptive families who participated in this study and the adoption agencies who helped with the recruitment of study participants. We also thank the Early Growth and Development Study team for their work with participants, especially the contributions of data manager Sally Guyer. We gratefully acknowledge Rand Conger and Laura Scaramella who contributed to the larger study.

References

Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA School-Age Forms & Profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth & Families.Google Scholar
Barker, D. J. (1990). The fetal and infant origins of adult disease. British Medical Journal, 301, 1111.Google Scholar
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory (2nd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Bifulco, A., Moran, P. M., Ball, C., & Bernazzani, O. (2002). Adult attachment style: Its relationship to clinical depression. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 37, 50–59. doi:10.1007/s127-002-8215-0 Google Scholar
Campbell, J. C., Woods, A. B., Chouaf, K. L., & Parker, B. (2000). Reproductive health consequences of intimate partner violence: A nursing research review. Clinical Nursing Research, 9, 217–237. doi:10.1177/10547730022158555 Google Scholar
Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Newman, D. L., & Silva, P. A. (1996). Behavioral observations at age 3 years predict adult psychiatric disorders: Longitudinal evidence from a birth cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 1033–1039. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830110071009 Google Scholar
Cassidy, J. (1994). The development of emotion regulation: Biological and behavioral considerations. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 228–249. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.1994.tb01287.x Google Scholar
Chemtob, C. M., Nomura, Y., Rajendran, K., Yehuda, R., Schwartz, D., & Abramowitz, R. (2010). Impact of maternal posttraumatic stress disorder and depression following exposure to the September 11 attacks on preschool children's behavior. Child Development, 81, 1129–1141. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01458.x Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D. (2016). Introduction to the special section. Development and Psychopathology, 28, 1217.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (1998). Maternal depressive disorder and contextual risk: Contributions to the development of attachment insecurity and behavior problems in toddlerhood. Development and Psychopathology, 10, 283–300. doi:10.1017/S0954579498001618 Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1995). Developmental psychopathology and disorders of affect. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 2. Risk, disorder, and adaptation (pp. 369–420). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1998a). Perspectives on research and practice in developmental psychopathology. In Damon, W., Sigel, I. E., & Renninger, K. A. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Vol. 4. Child psychology in practice (pp. 479–583). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (1998b). The development of depression in children and adolescents. American Psychologist, 53, 221–241. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.221 Google Scholar
Class, A. Q., D'Onforio, B. M., Singh, A. L., Ganiban, J. M., Spotts, E. L., Lichtenstein, P., … Neiderhiser, J. M. (2012). Current parental depression and offspring perceived self-competence: A quasi-experimental examination. Behavioral Genetics, 42, 787–797. doi:10.1007/s10519-012-9550-1 Google Scholar
Cohn, J. F., & Tronick, E. (1989). Specificity of infants’ response to mothers’ affective behavior. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 242–248. doi:10.1097/00004583-198903000-00016 Google Scholar
Cole, P. M., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (1992). Emotional dysregulation in disruptive behavior disorders. In Cicchetti, D. & Toth, S. L. (Eds.), Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology: Vol. 4. Developmental perspectives on depression (pp. 173–210). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.Google Scholar
Colman, I., Kingsbury, M., Garad, Y., Zeng, Y., Naicker, K., Pattern, S., & Thompson, A. H. (2016). Consistency in adult reporting of adverse childhood experiences. Psychological Medicine, 46, 543–549. doi:10.1017/S0033291715002032 Google Scholar
Coussons-Read, M. E. (2013). Effects of prenatal stress on pregnancy and human development: Mechanisms and pathways. Obstetric Medicine, 6, 52–57.Google Scholar
Cowan, P. A., Cowan, C. P., Cohn, D. A., & Pearson, J. L. (1996). Parents’ attachment histories and children's externalizing and internalizing behaviors: Exploring family systems models of linkage. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 53–63. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.64.1.53 Google Scholar
Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (1994). Maternal depression and child development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 73–112. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1994.tb01133.x Google Scholar
Cyranowski, J. M., Frank, E., Young, E., & Shear, M. K. (2000). Adolescent onset of the gender difference in lifetime rates of major depression: A theoretical model. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 21–27. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.1.21 Google Scholar
Danese, A., Moffitt, T. E., Harrington, H., Milne, B. J., Polanczyk, G., Pariante, C. M., … Caspi, A. (2009). Adverse childhood experiences and adult risk factors for age-related disease: Depression, inflammation, and clustering of metabolic risk markers. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 163, 1135–1143. doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2009.214 Google Scholar
Dohrenwend, B. S., Krasnoff, L., Askenasy, A. R., & Dohrenwend, B. P. (1978). Exemplification of method for scaling life events: The PERI life events scale. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 19, 205–229.Google Scholar
Dubowitz, H., Black, M. M., Kerr, M., Hussey, J., Morrel, T., Everson, M., & Starr, R. H. (2001). Type and timing of mothers’ victimization: Effects on mothers and children. Pediatrics, 107, 728–735.Google Scholar
Felsen, I. (1998). Transgenerational transmission of effects of the Holocaust: The North American research perspective. In Danieli, Y. (Ed.), International handbook of multigenerational legacies of trauma (pp. 43–68). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Felsen, I. (2017). Adult-onset trauma and intergenerational transmission: Integrating empirical data and psychoanalytic theory. Psychoanalysis, Self and Context, 12, 60–77. doi:10.1080/15551024.2017.1251185 Google Scholar
Ferentinos, P., Koukounari, A., Power, R., Rivera, M., Uher, R., Craddock, N., … Lewis, C. M. (2015). Familiality and SNP heritability of age at onset and episodicity in major depressive disorder. Psychological Medicine, 45, 2215–2225. doi:10.1017/S0033291715000215 Google Scholar
Fraiberg, S., Adelson, E., & Shapiro, V. (1975). Ghosts in the nursery: A psychoanalytic approach to the problems of impaired infant–mother relationships. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 14, 387–421. doi:10.1016/S0002-7138(09)61442-4 Google Scholar
Gartstein, M. A., Bridgett, D. J., Dishion, T. J., & Kaufman, N. K. (2009). Depressed mood and maternal report of child behavior problems: Another look at the depression–distortion hypothesis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30, 149–160. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2008.12.001 Google Scholar
Ge, X., Natsuaki, M. N., Martin, D. M., Leve, L. D., Neiderhiser, J. M., Shaw, D. S., … Reiss, D. (2008). Bridging the divide: Openness in adoption and postadoption psychosocial adjustment among birth and adoptive parents. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 529–540. doi:10.1037/a0012817 Google Scholar
Goodman, S. H., & Gotlib, I. H. (2002). Children of depressed parents: Mechanisms of risk and implications for treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
Goodman, S. H., Rouse, M. H., Connell, A. M., Broth, M. R., Hall, C. M., & Heyward, D. (2011). Maternal depression and child psychopathology: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 1–27. doi:10.1007/s10567-010-0080-1 Google Scholar
Greeson, J. K., Briggs, E. C., Layne, C. M., Belcher, H. M., Ostrowski, S. A., Kim, S., … Fairbank, J. A. (2014). Traumatic childhood experiences in the 21st century: Broadening and building on the ACE studies with data from the National Child Traumatic Stress Network. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 29, 536–556. doi:10.1177/0886260513505217 Google Scholar
Groh, A. M., Fearon, R. M., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Roisman, G. I. (2017). Attachment in the early life course: Meta-analytic evidence for its role in socioemotional development. Child Development Perspectives, 11, 70–76. doi:10.1111/cdep.12213 Google Scholar
Harold, G. T., Rice, F., Hay, D. F., Boivin, J., van den Bree, M., & Thapar, A. (2011). Familial transmission of depression and antisocial behavior symptoms: Disentangling the contribution of inherited and environmental factors and testing the mediation role of parenting. Psychological Medicine, 41, 1175–1185. doi:10.1017/S0033291710001753 Google Scholar
Hersen, M., & Thomas, J. C. (2007). Handbook of clinical interviewing with children. Los Angeles: Sage.Google Scholar
IBM Corporation. (2012). IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 21.0. Armonk, NY: Author.Google Scholar
Irner, T. B. (2012). Substance exposure in utero and developmental consequences in adolescence: A systematic review. Child Neuropsychology, 18, 521–549. doi:10.1080/09297049.2011.628309 Google Scholar
Iyengar, U., Kim, S., Martinez, S., Fonagy, P., & Strathearn, L. (2014). Unresolved trauma in mothers: Intergenerational effects and the role of reorganization. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 20–28. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00966 Google Scholar
Izard, C., & Kobak, R. (1991). Emotions system functioning and emotion regulation. In Garber, J. & Dodge, K. (Eds.), The development of affect regulation (pp. 303–321). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jaffee, S. R., & Price, T. S. (2007). Gene–environment correlations: A review of the evidence and implications for prevention of mental illness. Molecular Psychiatry, 12, 432–442. doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4001950 Google Scholar
Kellermann, N. P. (2001). Transmission of Holocaust trauma—An integrative view. Israel Journal of Psychiatry, 64, 256–267. doi:10.1521/psyc.64.3.256.18464 Google ScholarPubMed
Kerr, D. C., Leve, L. D., Harold, G. T., Natsuaki, M. N., Neiderhiser, J. M., Shaw, D. S, & Reiss, D. (2013). Influences of biological and adoptive mothers’ depression and antisocial behavior on adoptee's early behavior trajectories. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 723–734. doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9711-6 Google Scholar
Kim, H. K., Capaldi, D. M., Pears, K. C., Kerr, D. C., & Owen, L. D. (2009). Intergenerational transmission of internalising and externalising behaviours across three generations: Gender-specific pathways. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 19, 125–141. doi:10.1002/cbm.708 Google Scholar
Kinderman, P., Schwannauer, M., Pontin, E., & Tai, S. (2013). Psychological processes mediate the impact of familial risk, social circumstances and life events on mental health. PLOS ONE, 8, e76564. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076564 Google Scholar
Kinsella, M. T., & Monk, C. (2009). Impact of maternal stress, depression and anxiety on fetal neurobehavioral development. Clinical Obstetrics Gynecology, 52, 425–440. doi:10.1097/GRF.0b013e3181b52df1 Google Scholar
Klein-Parker, F. (1988). Dominant attitudes of adult children of Holocaust survivors toward their parents. In Wilson, J. P. & Kahana, B. (Eds.), Human adaptation to extreme stress (pp. 193–217). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Kovacs, M., & Devlin, B. (1998). Internalizing disorders in childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 47–63. doi:10.1017/S0021963097001765 Google Scholar
Kovacs, M., Devlin, B., Pollock, M., & Mukerji, P. (1997). A controlled family history study of childhood-onset depressive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 613–623. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830190033004 Google Scholar
Krauss, L. A., Wilson, C. K., Padrón, E., & Samuelson, K. W. (2016). Maternal trauma and children's functioning: The role of kinship social support. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 25, 421–435. doi:10.1080/10926771.2016.1145161 Google Scholar
Lambert, J. E., Holzer, J., & Hasbun, A. (2014). Association between parents’ PTSD severity and children's psychological distress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 27, 9–17. doi:10.1002/jts.21891 Google Scholar
Leve, L. D., Neiderhiser, J. M., Harold, G. T., Natsuaki, M. N., Bohannan, B. J., & Cresko, W. A. (2017). Naturalistic experimental designs as tools for understanding the role of genes and the environment in prevention research. Prevention Science. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s11121-017-0746-8 Google Scholar
Leve, L. D., Neiderhiser, J. M., Shaw, D. S., Ganiban, J., Natsuaki, M. N., & Reiss, D. (2013). The Early Growth and Development Study: A prospective adoption study from birth through middle childhood. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 16, 412–423. doi:10.1017/thg.2012.126 Google Scholar
Little, R. J. (1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83, 1198–1202.Google Scholar
Lorant, V., Deliege, D., & Eaton, W. (2003). Socioeconomic inequalities in depression: A meta-analysis. American Journal of Epidemiology, 157, 98–112. doi:10.1093/aje/kwf182 Google Scholar
Loukas, A., Piejak, L. A., Bingham, C. R., Fitzgerald, H. E., & Zucker, R. A. (2001). Parental distress as a mediator of problem behaviors in sons of alcohol-involved families. Family Relations, 50, 293–301. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3729.2001.00293.x Google Scholar
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 99–128. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr3901_4 Google Scholar
Marceau, K., De Araujo-Greecher, M., Miller, E. S., Massey, S. H., Mayes, L. C., Ganiban, J. M., … Neiderhiser, J. M. (2016). The Perinatal Risk Index: Early risks experienced by domestic adoptees in the United States. PLOS ONE, 11, e150486. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0150486 Google Scholar
Mayou, R. A., Bryant, B. M., & Ehlers, A. (2001). Prediction of psychological outcomes one year after a motor vehicle accident. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1231–1238. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.8.1231 Google Scholar
McGee, R., Feehan, M., Williams, S., & Anderson, J. (1992). DSM-III disorders from age 11 to age 15 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 50–59. doi:10.1097/00004583-199201000-00009 Google Scholar
McGuffin, P., & Katz, R. (1989). The genetics of depression and manic-depressive disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 294–304. doi:10.1192/bjp.155.3.294 Google Scholar
McNeil, T. F., & Sjöström, K. (1995). The McNeil-Sjöström Scale for Obstetric Complications. Malmo, Sweden: Lund University, University Hospital, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Min, M. O., Singer, L. T., Minnes, S., Kim, H., & Short, E. (2013). Mediating links between maternal childhood trauma and preadolescent behavioral adjustment. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28, 831–851. doi:10.1177/0886260512455868 Google Scholar
Miner, J. L., & Clarke-Stewart, A. (2008). Trajectories of externalizing behaviour from age 2 to age 9: Relations with gender, temperament, ethnicity, parenting, and rater. Developmental Psychology, 44, 771–786. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.771 Google Scholar
Murray, L., Halligan, S. L., Adams, G., Patterson, P., & Goodyer, I. M. (2006). Socioemotional development in adolescents at risk for depression: The role of maternal depression and attachment style. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 489–516. doi:10.1017/S0954579406060263 Google Scholar
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2012). Mplus user's guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
Natsuaki, M. N., Shaw, D. S., Neiderhiser, J. M., Ganiban, J. M., Harold, G. T., Reiss, D., & Leve, L. D. (2014). Raised by depressed parents: Is it an environmental risk? Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 17, 357–367. doi:10.1007/s10567-014-0169-z Google Scholar
Norris, F. H. (1990). Screening for traumatic stress: A scale of use in the general population. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 1704–1718. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1990.tb01505.x Google Scholar
O'Connor, T. G., Heron, J., Golding, J., Beveridge, M., & Glover, V. (2002). Maternal antenatal anxiety and children's behavioural/emotional problems at 4 years: Report from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. British Journal of Psychiatry, 180, 502–508. doi:10.1192/bjp.180.6.502 Google Scholar
O'Donnell, M. L., Creamer, M., Pattison, P., & Atkin, C. (2004). Psychiatric morbidity following injury. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 507–514. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.3.507 Google Scholar
Pawlby, S., Hay, D. F., Sharp, D., Waters, C. S., & O'Keane, V. (2009). Antenatal depression predicts depression in adolescent offspring: Prospective longitudinal community-based study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 113, 236–243. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2008.05.018 Google Scholar
Pemberton, C. K., Neiderhiser, J. M., Leve, L. D., Natsuaki, M. N., Shaw, D. S., Reiss, D., & Ge, X. (2010). Influence of parental depressive symptoms on adopted toddler behaviors: An emerging developmental cascade of genetic and environmental effects. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 803–818. doi:10.1017/S0954579410000477 Google Scholar
Pierce, E. W., Ewing, L. J., & Campbell, S. B. (1999). Diagnostic status and symptomatic behavior of hard-to-manage preschool children in middle childhood and early adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 28, 44–57. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2801_4Google Scholar
Price, T. S., & Jaffee, S. R. (2008). Effects of the family environment: Gene–environment interaction and passive gene–environment correlation. Developmental Psychology, 44, 305–315. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.2.305 Google Scholar
Raznahan, A., Greenstein, D., Lee, N. R., Clasen, L. S., & Giedd, J. N. (2012). Prenatal growth in humans and postnatal brain maturation into late adolescence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 11366–11371. doi:10.1073/pnas.1203350109 Google Scholar
Reich, W., Earls, F., & Powell, J. (1988). A comparison of the home and social environments of children of alcoholic and non-alcoholic parents. British Journal of Addiction, 83, 831–839. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1988.tb00518.x Google Scholar
Reuben, A., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Belsky, D. W., Harrington, H., Schroeder, F., … Danese, A. (2016). Lest we forget: Comparing retrospective and prospective assessments of adverse childhood experiences in the prediction of adult health. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57, 1103–1112. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12621 Google Scholar
Reuter, M. A., Keyes, M. A., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2009). Family interactions in adoptive compared to nonadoptive families. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 58–66. doi:10.1037/a0014091 Google Scholar
Rice, F., Harold, G., & Thapar, A. (2002). The genetic aetiology of childhood depression: A review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 65–79. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00004 Google Scholar
Richters, J., & Pellegrini, D. (1989). Depressed mothers’ judgment about their children: An examination of depression–distortion hypothesis. Child Development, 50, 1068–1075. doi:10.2307/1130780 Google Scholar
Schwerdtfeger, K. L., & Goff, B. S. (2007). Intergenerational transmission of trauma: Exploring mother–infant prenatal attachment. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 39–51. doi:10.1002/jts.20179 Google Scholar
Scott, K. M., Smith, D. R., & Ellis, P. M. (2010). Prospectively ascertained child maltreatment and its association with DSM-IV mental disorders in young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 712–719. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.71 Google Scholar
Shaw, D. S., Dishion, T. J., Connell, A., Wilson, M. N., & Gardner, F. (2009). Improvements in maternal depression as a mediator of intervention effects on early child problem behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 417–439. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000236 Google Scholar
Silberg, J., Maes, H., & Eaves, L. J. (2010). Genetic and environmental influences on the transmission of parental depression to children's depression and conduct disturbance: An extended children of twins study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 734–744. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02205.x Google Scholar
Singh, A. L., D'Onforio, B. M., Slutske, W. S., Turkheimer, E., Emery, R. E., Harden, K. P., … Martin, N. G. (2011). Parental depression and offspring psychopathology: A children of twins study. Psychological Medicine, 41, 1385–1395. doi:10.1017/S0033291710002059 Google Scholar
Sotero, M. A. (2006). A conceptual model of historical trauma: Implications for public health practice and research. Journal of Health Disparities Research and Practice, 1, 93–108.Google Scholar
Sullivan, P. F., Neale, M. C., & Kendler, K. S. (2000). Genetic epidemiology of major depression: Review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1552–1562. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.10.1552 Google Scholar
Talge, N. M., Neal, C., & Glover, V. (2007). Antenatal maternal stress and long-term effects on child neurodevelopment: How and why? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 245–261. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01714.x Google Scholar
Thapar, A., Collishaw, S., Pine, D. S., & Thapar, A. K. (2012). Depression in adolescence. Lancet, 379, 1056–1067. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60871-4 Google Scholar
Thompson, R. (2007). Mothers’ violence victimization and child behavior problems: Examining the link. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77, 306–315. doi:10.1037/0002-9432.77.2.306 Google Scholar
Walker, M. (1999). The inter-generational transmission of trauma: The effects of abuse on the survivor's relationship with their children and on the children themselves. European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counseling, 2, 281–296. doi:10.1080/13642539908400813 Google Scholar
Weissman, M. M., Wickramaratne, P., Nomura, Y., Warner, V., Pilowsky, D., & Verdeli, H. (2006). Offspring of depressed parents: 20 years later. American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1001–1008. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.6.1001 Google Scholar
Williamson, D. E., Ryan, N. D., Birmaher, B., Dahl, R. E., Kaufman, J., Rao, U., & Puig-Antich, J. (1995). A case-control family history study of depression in adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 1596–1607. doi:10.1097/00004583-199512000-00010 Google Scholar
Wiseman, H. (2008). On failed intersubjectivity: Recollections of loneliness experiences in offspring of Holocaust survivors. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 78, 350–358. doi:10.1037/a00141 Google Scholar