Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-g7gxr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-11T07:10:50.822Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

SYSTEMATICALLY SHORTCHANGED, YET CARRYING ON

Black Adolescent Girls in the Detroit Metropolitan School Reform Environment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 February 2020

Linnea A. Evans ,
Arline T. Geronimus  and
Cleopatra Howard Caldwell
Linnea A. Evans*
Affiliation:
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The University of Wisconsin – Madison
Arline T. Geronimus
Affiliation:
Department of Health Behavior and Health Education, The University of Michigan
Cleopatra Howard Caldwell
Affiliation:
Department of Health Behavior and Health Education, The University of Michigan
*
*Corresponding author: Linnea A. Evans, Center for Women’s Health and Health Disparities Research, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 667 WARF, 610 Walnut Street, Madison, WI 53726. E-mail: linnea.evans@gmail.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

School reform policies, such as the closure of “low-performing” schools and the competitive introduction of school choice and charters, were presented to communities of color as the fix to educational inequities and the lifeline needed for urban Black students to have a chance at a quality education and social mobility. The ways in which reforms have under-delivered on this promise, and in some cases exacerbated negative academic outcomes, particularly for Black boys, are documented. Yet, research on the experience of Black adolescent girls is sparse. We explore ways that policies aimed at delivering a school choice environment have affected daily life for Black adolescent girls. We examine this issue in the context of the Detroit metropolitan area with Black adolescent girls, reflecting on their high school education experiences that spanned a time-period of rapid transitions in the schooling environment (2014–2016) prompted by a series of school reforms in Michigan. Through in-depth interviews we found that girls sought to invest in their high school education as a path to college; yet the very reforms advanced as ways to clear this path hindered their ability to spend time on the human and social capital activities believed to be important to their academic success and social mobility. Our findings suggest advantages for those students with proximal access to high quality neighborhood schools cannot be replicated in a choice environment. There may also be health consequences of the coping strategies girls are compelled to employ to carry on under adverse educational circumstances.

Keywords

Black GirlhoodSchool ChoiceSchool ClosuresTimeStressHigh Effort Coping
Type
State of the Discipline
Information
Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race , Volume 16 , Issue 2 , Fall 2019 , pp. 357 - 383
Copyright
Copyright © Hutchins Center for African and African American Research 2020 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Anderson, Courtney L. (2015). The Disparate Impact of Shuttered Schools. American University Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law , 23(2): 319–352.Google Scholar
Anderson, Meredith B. L. (2016). Building Better Narratives in Black Education. Washington, DC: UNCF. <http://images.uncf.org/production/reports/2016_Advocacy-Better_Narratives_Report_(digital).pdf> (accessed September 14, 2019).Google Scholar
Arsen, David, and Ni, Yongmei (2012). The Effects of Charter School Competition on School District Resource Allocation. Educational Administration Quarterly, 48(1): 3–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bell, Courtney A. (2007). Space and Place: Urban Parents’ Geographical Preferences for Schools. The Urban Review, 39(4): 375–404.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berends, Mark (2015). Sociology and School Choice: What We Know After Two Decades of Charter Schools. Annual Review of Sociology, 41: 159–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Betts, Julian R., and Tang, Emily Y. (2014). A Meta-Analysis of the Literature on the Effect of Charter Schools on Student Achievement. National Charter School Research Project, Center Reinventing Public Education: Bothell, University of Washington.Google Scholar
Blake, Jamilia J., Butler, Bettie Ray, Lewis, Chance W., and Darensbourg, Alicia (2011). Unmasking the Inequitable Discipline Experiences of Urban Black Girls: Implications for Urban Educational Stakeholders. Urban Review, 43: 90–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bosman, Julie, and Davey, Monica (2016). Anger in Michigan Over Appointing Emergency Managers. The New York Times, January 22. <https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/23/us/anger-in-michigan-over-appointing-emergency-managers.html> (accessed November 5, 2016).Google Scholar
Bross, Whitney, Harrris, Douglas N., and Liu, Lihan (2016). Extreme Measures: When and How School Closures and Charter Takeovers Benefit Students. New Orleans, LA: Education Research Alliance for New Orleans.Google Scholar
Brummet, Quentin (2014). The Effect of School Closings on Student Achievement. Journal of Public Economics, 119(C): 108–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, Tamara T. (2018). Black Girl Cartography: Black Girlhood and Place-Making in Education Research. Review of Research in Education, 42: 28–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carlson, Deven, and Lavertu, Stéphane (2015). School Closures and Student Achievement: An Analysis of Ohio’s Urban District and Charter Schools. Columbus, OH: Thomas B. Fordham Institute.Google Scholar
Carpenter, Dick M., and Kafer, Krista (2012). A History of Private School Choice. Peabody Journal of Education, 87: 336–350.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caton, Marcia T. (2012). Black Male Perspectives on Their Educational Experiences in High School. Urban Education, 47(6): 1055–1085.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Center for Research on Education Outcomes (CREDO) (2009). Multiple Choice: Charter School Performance in 16 states. Stanford, CA: CREDO. <https://credo.stanford.edu/sites/g/files/sbiybj6481/f/multiple_choice_credo.pdf> (accessed July 10, 2019).+(accessed+July+10,+2019).>Google Scholar
Center for Research on Education Outcomes (CREDO) (2017). Lights Off: Practice and Impact of Closing Low-Performing schools. Stanford, CA: CREDO. <https://credo.stanford.edu/pdfs/Closure_FINAL_Volume_I.pdf> (accessed February 2, 2019).+(accessed+February+2,+2019).>Google Scholar
Center for Research on Educational Outcomes (CREDO) (2013). National Charter School Study. Stanford, CA: CREDO. <http://credo.stanford.edu/documents/NCSS%202013%20Final%20Draft.pdf> (accessed June 10, 2015).+(accessed+June+10,+2015).>Google Scholar
Chabrier, Julia, Cohodes, Sarah, and Oreopoulos, Philip (2016). What Can We Learn from Charter School Lotteries? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 30(3): 57–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charmaz, Kathy (2006). Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide through Qualitative Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Chavous, Tabbye, and Cogburn, Courtney D. (2007). Superinvisible Women: Black Girls and Women in Education. Black Women, Gender & Families, 1(2): 24–51.Google Scholar
Citizens Research Council of Michigan (CRCM) (2016). Detroit Public Schools’ Legacy Costs and Indebtedness. Citizens Research Council of Michigan, No. 1138. <http://crcmich.org/PUBLICAT/2010s/2016/Detroit_schools_legacy_costs_indebtedness_2016.pdf> (accessed January 22, 2016).+(accessed+January+22,+2016).>Google Scholar
Cooper, Camille Wilson (2005). School Choice and the Standpoint of African American Mothers: Considering the Power of Positionality. Journal of Negro Education, 74(2): 174–189.Google Scholar
Cooper, Camille Wilson (2009). Parent Involvement, African American Mothers, and the Politics of Educational Care. Equity & Excellence in Education, 42(4): 379–394.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cowen, Joshua, Edwards, Danielle Sanderson, Sattin-Bajaj, Carolyn, and Cosby, Missy (2018). Motor City Miles: Student Travel to Schools in and around Detroit. <https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/99159/motor_city_miles_student_travel_to_schools_in_and_around_detroit_0.pdf> (accessed December 15, 2018).Google Scholar
Cwiek, Sarah (2018). Across Michigan, School Districts Large and Small Struggle to Put Teachers in Classrooms. Michigan Radio, August 21. <https://www.michiganradio.org/post/across-michigan-school-districts-large-and-small-struggle-put-teachers-classrooms> (accessed September 14, 2019).Google Scholar
Darling-Hammond, Linda (2004). The Color Line in American Education: Race, Resources, and Student Achievement. Du Bois Review, 1(2): 213–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Data Driven Detroit (2014). Student Daily Commute Distances for Detroit Schools. <https://datadrivendetroit.org/files/SGN/Detroit%20School%20Commute%20Distances%20Report.pdf> (accessed January 3, 2016).+(accessed+January+3,+2016).>Google Scholar
Deeds, Vontrese, and Pattillo, Mary (2015). Organizational “Failure” and Institutional Pluralism: A Case Study of an Urban School Closure. Urban Education, 50(4): 474–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de la Torre, Marisa, and Gwynne, Julia (2009). When Schools Close: Effects on Displaced Students in Chicago Public Schools. Chicago, IL: Consortium on Chicago School Research at the University of Chicago.Google Scholar
DeVito, Lee (2016a). Detroit Teacher Posts Open Letter to Emergency Manager. Detroit Metro Times, January 12. < http://www.metrotimes.com/news-hits/archives/2016/01/12/detroit-teacher-posts-open-letter-to-emergency-manager> (accessed April 3, 2016).Google Scholar
DeVito, Lee (2016b). Detroit Teachers are Using Twitter to Document Poor School Conditions. Detroit Metro Times, January 14. <https://www.metrotimes.com/news-hits/archives/2016/01/14/detroit-teachers-are-using-twitter-to-document-poor-school-conditions> (accessed April 3, 2016).Google Scholar
Dickson, James (2011). Gov. Snyder Lifts Caps on Charter Schools. The News Herald, January 23. <http://www.thenewsherald.com/news/gov-snyder-lifts-cap-on-charter-schools/article_bb71b507-7797-5671-80aa-5114ba6fff41.html> (accessed October 18, 2017).Google Scholar
Dill, LeConté J., Morrison, Orrianne, and Dunn, Mercedez (2016). The Enduring Atlanta Compromise: Black Youth Contending with Home Foreclosures and School Closures in the “New South.” Du Bois Review, 13(2): 365–377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dixson, Adrienne D., Buras, Kristen L., and Jeffers, Elizabeth K. (2015). The Color of Reform: Race, Education Reform, and Charter Schools in Post-Katrina New Orleans. Qualitative Inquiry, 21(3): 288–299.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duncan-Andrade, Jeffrey M. R. (2010). What a Coach Can Teach a Teacher: Lessons Urban Schools Can Learn from a Successful Sports Program. New York: Peter Lang Publishing Inc.Google Scholar
Engberg, John, Gill, Brian, Zamarro, Gema and Zimmer, Ron (2012). Closing Schools in a Shrinking District: Do Student Outcomes Depend on Which Schools are Closed? Journal of Urban Economics, 71(2): 189–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Engler, John (1993). Our Kids Deserve Better! New Schools for a New Century. Governor John Engler’s Speech to the Michigan Legislature on Plans to Reform Michigan Schools, Lansing, MI, October 5.Google Scholar
Ewing, Eve L. (2018). Ghosts in the School Yard: Racism and School Closings on Chicago’s South Side. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farley, Reynolds, Danziger, Sheldon, and Holzer, Harry J. (2000). Detroit Divided. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Fergus, Edward, and Noguera, Pedro (2010). Theories of Change among Single-Sex Schools for Black and Latino Boys: An Intervention in Search of Theory . New York: Metropolitan Center for Urban Education.Google Scholar
Ferguson, Ann Arnett (2001). Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity (Law, Meaning, and Violence). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Frankenberg, Erica, Siegel-Hawley, Genevieve, and Wang, Jia (2010). Choice Without Equity: Charter School Segregation and the Needs for Civil Rights Standards. The Civil Rights Project. Proyecto Derechos Civiles. <https://files-eric-ed-gov.ezproxy.library.wisc.edu/fulltext/ED509773.pdf> (accessed August 25, 2017).Google Scholar
Frey, William H. (2015). Black Flight to the Suburbs on the Rise. Washington, DC: Brookings Institute. <https://www.brookings.edu/blog/the-avenue/2015/07/31/black-flight-to-the-suburbs-on-the-rise/> (accessed October 21, 2017).+(accessed+October+21,+2017).>Google Scholar
Furgeson, Joshua, Gill, Brian, Haimson, Joshua, Killewald, Alexandra, McCullough, Moira, Nichols-Barrer, Ira, The, Bing-Ru, Verbitsky-Savitz, Natalya, Bowen, Melissa, Demerrit, Allison, Hill, Paul, and Lake, Robin (2012). Charter School Management Organizations: Diverse Strategies and Diverse Student Impacts. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research. <http://www.mathematica-mpr.com/ our-publications-and-findings/publications/ charterschool-management-organizations-diverse- strategies-and-diverse-student-impacts> (accessed July 20, 2019).Google Scholar
Geronimus, Arline T. (1992). The Weathering Hypothesis and the Health of African-American Women and Infants: Evidence and Speculations. Ethnicity & Disease, 2(3), 207–221.Google ScholarPubMed
Geronimus, Arline T., Hicken, Margaret, Keene, Danya, and Bound, John (2006). “Weathering” and Age Patterns of Allostatic Load Scores Among Black and Whites in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 96(5): 826–833.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Geronimus, Arline T., James, Sherman A., Destin, Mesmin, Graham, Louis F., Hatzenbuehler, Mark L., Murphy, Mary C., Pearson, Jay A., Omari, Amel, and Thompson, J. Phillip (2016). Jedi Public Health: Co-creating an Identity-safe Culture to Promote HealthEquity. Social Science & Medicine Population Health, 2: 105–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gleason, Philip, Clark, Melissa, Tuttle, Christina Clark, Dwoyer, Emily, and Silverberg, Marsha (2010). The Evaluation of Charter School Impacts: Final Report. NCEE 2010-4029. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences. <https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20104029/pdf/20104030.pdf> (accessed July 21, 2019).Google Scholar
Goenner, James N. (2011). The Origination of Michigan’s Charter School Policy: An Historical Analysis. PhD Dissertation, Department of Educational Administration, Michigan State University.Google Scholar
Gordon, Molly F., Torre, Marisa de la, Cowhy, Jennifer R., Moore, Paul T., Sartain, Lauren, and Knight, David (2018). School Closings in Chicago: Staff and Student Experiences and Academic Outcomes . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Consortium on School Research.Google Scholar
Green, Terrance (2017). “We Felt They Took the Heart Out of the Community”: Examining a Community-Based Response to Urban School Closure. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 25(21): 1–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grover, John, and Velde, Yvette van der (2016). A School District in Crisis: Detroit’s Public Schools 1842–2015. Loveland Technologies. <https://makeloveland.com/reports/schools> (accessed April 3, 2017).Google Scholar
Guyette, Curt (2015). Six Years Under: After Six Years and Four State-Appointed Managers, Detroit Public Schools’ Debt Has Grown Even Deeper. Detroit Metro Times, February 25–March 3. <http://www.metrotimes.com/detroit/after-six-years-and-four-state-appointed-managers-detroit-public-schools-debt-is-deeper-than-ever/Content?oid=2302010> (accessed May 10, 2017)Google Scholar
Harper, Shaun R. and Davis, Charles H. F. III (2012). They (Don’t) Care about Education: A Counternarrative on Black Male Students’ Responses to Inequitable Schooling. Educational Foundations, 26(1–2): 103–120.Google Scholar
Harris, Douglas N., and Larsen, Matthew (2016). The Effects of the New Orleans Post-Katrina School Reforms on Student Academic Outcomes. <https://ldr.lafayette.edu/bitstream/handle/10385/2096/Larsen-EducationResearchAllianceforNewOrleansTechnicalReport-2016.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed August 10, 2019).Google Scholar
Henderson, Stephen (2016). For Students’ Sake, Michigan Must Do Better on Charter Schools. Detroit Free Press , August 24. < http://www.freep.com/story/opinion/columnists/stephen-henderson/2014/06/22/stephen-henderson-for-students-sake-michigan-must-do-better-on/77155066/> (accessed September 12, 2017).Google Scholar
Holland, Megan M. (2012). Only Here for the Day: The Social Integration of Minority Students at a Majority White High School. Sociology of Education, 85(2): 101–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holly, Christen, Field, Tim, Kim, Juli, and Hassel, Bryan C., and New Schools for New Orleans: Maggie Runyan-Shefa, Michael Stone, and Davis Zaunbrecher (2015). Ten Years in New Orleans: Public School Resurgence and the Path Ahead – Executive Summary. New Orleans, LA: New Schools for New Orleans. <http://www.newschoolsforneworleans.org/10yearsExecutiveSummary.pdf> (accessed July 15, 2019).Google Scholar
Howard, Tyron C. (2013). How Does It Feel to Be a Problem?: Black Male Students, Schools, and Learning in Enhancing the Knowledge Base to Disrupt Deficit Frameworks. Review of Research in Education, 37: 54–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HuffPost Education (2011). 41 Detroit Public Schools to Become Charter Schools. The Huffington Post, May 25. <https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/03/14/detroit-charter-schools_n_835719.html> (accessed November 25, 2016).+(accessed+November+25,+2016).>Google Scholar
Ispa-Landa, Simone (2013). Gender, Race, and Justifications for Group Exclusion: Urban Black Students Bussed to Affluent Suburban Schools. Sociology of Education, 86(3): 218–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacob, Brian, Crespin, Rene, Libassi, CJ, and Dynarski, Susan M. (2016). Class Size in Michigan: Investigating the Risk of Being in Very Large Classes. Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy Education Policy Initiative. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Kang, Leanne (2015). The Dismantling of an Urban School System: Detroit, 1980–2014. PhD dissertation, Educational Studies, University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Kemple, James J. (2016). School Closures in New York City: Did Students Do Better After Their High Schools Were Closed? Education Next, 16(4): 66–75.Google Scholar
Kirshner, Ben, Gaertner, Matthew, and Pozzoboni, Kristen (2010). Tracing Transitions: The Effect of High School Closure on Displaced Students. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 32(3): 407–429.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Losen, Daniel J., Keith, Michael A. II, Hodson, Chery L., and Martinez, Tia E. (2016). Charter Schools, Civil Rights and School Discipline: A Comprehensive Review . Los Angeles, CA: The Center for Civil Rights Remedies.Google Scholar
Losen, Daniel, and Skiba, Russell J. (2010). Suspended Education: Urban Middle Schools in Crisis. Los Angeles, CA: The Civil Rights Project / Proyecto Derechos Civiles. <https://civilrightsproject.ucla.edu/research/k-12-education/school-discipline/suspended-education-urban-middle-schools-in-crisis/Suspended-Education_FINAL-2.pdf> (accessed April 3, 2017).+(accessed+April+3,+2017).>Google Scholar
Marsh, L. Trenton S., and Noguera, Pedro A. (2018). Beyond Stigma and Stereotypes: An Ethnographic Study on the Effects of School-Imposed Labeling on Black Males in an Urban Charter School. Urban Review, 50: 447–477.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGuire, Marianne Yared, and Lenhard, Elizabeth (2015). Letter: Black School Districts Treated Differently. The Detroit News, February 10. <http://www.detroitnews.com/story/opinion/2015/02/10/letter-black-districts-treated-differently/23141371/> (accessed January 12, 2017).Google Scholar
Michigan Department of Education (2011). Governor, Detroit Public Schools Emergency Manager Jointly Unveil Dramatic Education Reform Plan to Restructure Failing Michigan Schools. Michigan Department of Education Press Release, June 20. <http://www.michigan.gov/mde/0,4615,7-140--258186--,00.html> (accessed October 15, 2017).+(accessed+October+15,+2017).>Google Scholar
Michigan DECA. About Michigan DECA. <http://mideca.org/members/decaintro/> (Accessed January 17, 2019.)+(Accessed+January+17,+2019.)>Google Scholar
Michigan Department of Education (2015). Michigan Department of Education Pupil Accounting Manual, 2015–2016. <https://www.michigan.gov/documents/5I-SchoolsChoice_41452_7.pdf> (accessed October 5, 2017).+(accessed+October+5,+2017).>Google Scholar
Mirel, Jeffrey (1999). The Rise and Fall of an Urban School System: Detroit 1907-81 (2nd ed.) Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morel, Domingo (2018). Takeover. Race, Education, and American Democracy. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Morris, Edward W. (2007). “Ladies” or “Loudies”?: Perceptions and Experiences of Black Girls in Classrooms. Youth & Society, 38(4): 490–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, Monique W. (2016). Pushout: The Criminalization of Black Girls in Schools. New York: The New Press.Google Scholar
The Movement for Black Lives (2019). A Vision for Black Lives: Policy Demands for Black Power, Freedom and Justice. Community Control. <https://policy.m4bl.org/community-control/> (accessed January 12, 2019).+(accessed+January+12,+2019).>Google Scholar
National Alliance for Public Charter Schools (NAPCS) (2017). A Growing Movement: America’s Largest Public Charter School Communities, Twelfth Edition. <https://www.publiccharters.org/our-work/publications/growing-movement-americas-largest-public-charter-school-communities-twelfth> (accessed May 12, 2018).+(accessed+May+12,+2018).>Google Scholar
Nelson, Steven L., and Grace, Jennifer E. (2017). The Right to Remain Silent in New Orleans: The Role of Non-Politically Accountable Charter School Boards in the School-to-Prison Pipeline. Nova Law Review, 40(5): 448–492.Google Scholar
Noguera, Pedro A. (2009). The Trouble With Black Boys:…And Other Reflections on Race, Equity, and the Future of Public Education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Osborne, Jason W. (1997). Race and Academic Disidentification. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(4): 728–735.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oluwole, Joseph O., and Green, Preston C. III (2009). State Takeover of School Districts: Race and the Equal Protection Clause. Indiana Law Review, 42(2): 343–410.Google Scholar
Özek, Umut, Hansen, Michael, and Gonzalez, Thomas (2012). A Leg Up or a Boot Out?: Student Achievement and Mobility under School Restructuring. Washington, DC: Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research, American Institutes for Research.Google Scholar
Pattillo, Mary (2015). Everyday Politics of School Choice in the Black Community. Du Bois Review, 12(1): 41–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patton, Lori D., Crenshaw, Kimberlé, Haynes, Chayla, and Watson, Terri N. (2016). Why We Can’t Wait: (Re)Examining the Opportunities and Challenges for Black Women and Girls in Education. Journal of Negro Education, 85(3): 194–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pedroni, Thomas (2014). MEAP Cohort Data Reveal Stagnation and Decline in EAA Student Test Achievement. Results Contradict EAA’s Previous Claims of Phenomenal Growth. Detroit Data and Democracy Project. https://sites.google.com/site/detroitdataanddemocracyproject/MEAP-Cohort-Data-Reveal-Stagnation-and-Decline-in-EAA-Achievement> (accessed August 1, 2019).Google Scholar
The Pew Charitable Trusts (2011). Closing Public Schools in Philadelphia: Lessons from Six Urban Districts. <https://www.pewtrusts.org/-/media/legacy/uploadedfiles/wwwpewtrustsorg/reports/philadelphia_research_initiative/closingpublicschoolsphiladelphiapdf.pdf> (accessed July 21, 2019).+(accessed+July+21,+2019).>Google Scholar
Rhodes, Anna, and DeLuca, Stefanie (2014). Residential Mobility and School Choice Among Poor Families. In Lareau, Annette and Goyette, Kimberly (Eds.), Choosing Homes, Choosing Schools, pp. 137–166. New York: Russell Sage Foundation Press.Google Scholar
Rios, Victor M. (2011). Punished: Policing the Lives of Black and Latino Boys . New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar
Rowley, Stephanie J., Ross, Latisha, Lozada, Fantasy T., Williams, Amber, Gale, Adrian, and Kurtz-Costes, Beth (2014). Framing Black Boys: Parent, Teacher, and Student Narratives of the Academic Lives of Black Boys. In Liben, L. S. and Bigler, R. S. (Eds.), The Role of Gender in Educational Contexts and Outcomes, pp. 301–332. Cambridge, MA: Elsevier Inc.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schott Foundation for Public Education (2010). Yes We Can: The 2010 State Report on Public Education for Black Males. Cambridge, MA: The Schott Foundation for Public Education. <http://schottfoundation.org/resources/yes-we-can-schott-50-state-report-public-education-and-black-males> (accessed December 1, 2018).+(accessed+December+1,+2018).>Google Scholar
Sherrod, Jessica, and Dawkins-Law, Shelby (2013). After School Closure: Tracking the Academic Performance of Displaced Students. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina Department of Public Instruction.Google Scholar
Strauss, Anslem, and Corbin, Juliet (1998). Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Taylor, April Z., and Graham, Sandra (2007). An Examination of the Relationship between Achievement Values and Perceptions of Barriers among Low-SES African American and Latino students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(1): 52–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toldson, Ivory A. (2008). Breaking Barriers: Plotting the Path to Academic Success for School-age African-American Males. Washington, DC: Congressional Black Caucus Foundation.Google Scholar
U.S. Army Junior ROTC. Army Junior ROTC Program Overview. <http://www.usarmyjrotc.com/general/program_overview.php> (accessed January 17, 2019).+(accessed+January+17,+2019).>Google Scholar
U.S. Army Junior ROTC. Locate a U.S. Army JROTC High School. <http://www.usarmyjrotc.com/general/locate_a_school.php> (accessed January 17, 2019).+(accessed+January+17,+2019).>Google Scholar
U.S. Bureau of the Census (2016). 2016 Population Estimates and Small Area Income and Poverty Estimates, American Community Survey . Washington, DC: U.S. government Printing Office. <https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/MI,detroitcitymichigan#viewtop> (accessed November 19, 2017).+(accessed+November+19,+2017).>Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2016). Common Core Data, State Dropout and Completion Data File 2012–2013 . <https://nces.ed.gov/ccd/stnfis.asp> (accessed October 12, 2017).+(accessed+October+12,+2017).>Google Scholar
Vasquez Heilig, Julian (2016). Breaking News: NAACP Calls for National Moratorium on Charters. Cloaking Inequality: A Blog Focused on Education and Social Justice, July 29. <https://cloakinginequity.com/2016/07/29/breaking-news-naacp-calls-for-national-moratorium-on-charters/> (accessed June 12, 2018).Google Scholar
Welsh, Richard (2019). Recovery, Achievement, and Opportunity: A Comparative Analysis of State Takeover Districts in Louisiana, Tennessee, and Georgia. Urban Education, 54(3): 311–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, Kenneth K., and Shen, Francis X. (2003). Measuring the Effectiveness of City and State Takeover as a School Reform Strategy. Peabody Journal of Education, 78(4): 89–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wun, Connie (2016). Unaccounted Foundations: Black Girls, Anti-Black Racism, and Punishment in Schools. Critical Sociology, 42(4-5): 737–750.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zaniewski, Ann (2015). DPS Facing Surge of Midyear Teacher Departures. Detroit Free Press, November 26. <https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/detroit/2015/11/26/dps-teachers-leaving/76311802/> (accessed June 8, 2018).Google Scholar
Zaniewski, Ann (2016). EAA to Pay $2.25 Million to Detroit District, Return Schools by July. Detroit Free Press, November 7. < http://www.freep.com/story/news/education/2016/11/07/eaa-schools-education-dpscd/93417992/> (accessed July 21, 2017).Google Scholar
The Zebra (2018). Why Michigan is in the Middle of a Car Insurance Crisis—and What Can Be Done. <https://www.thezebra.com/research/michigan-car-insurance-crisis/#about> (accessed March 1, 2019).+(accessed+March+1,+2019).>Google Scholar