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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 17 January 2013
I have to explain at the outset that the title of my paper has been chosen for the sake of brevity. Both the words “expiatory” and “substitutionary” are liable to be misunderstood and abused in argument. I shall, therefore, avoid the word “expiate” as much as possible; but as I cannot do without a frequent use of the words “substitution” and “substitutionary,” I merely note at present that there are various modes of substitution and various purposes served by it, and that it is very important in an argument to state accurately both the mode and the purpose.
The object of my paper is to place the two prevalent theories of the origin of sacrifice in juxtaposition with the facts which we have in regard to Greek sacrifices, in order that we may see what light the facts may throw on the theories. For this purpose I first state the two theories.
page 427 note * It appeared first at Würzburg 1841, and afterwards in “ Studien des Classischen Alterthums, Akademische Abhandlungen,” von Ernst von Lasaulx. Regensburg, 1854.
page 429 note * Many instances are given in Tyler's, “Primitive Culture,” vol ii. p. 341Google Scholar, and SirLubbock's, John“Origin of Civilization” (sec. ed.), p. 269.Google Scholar
page 430 note * Nägelsbach, “ Homerische Theologie,” p. 61, section 34; Professor Blackie,“ Horæ Hellenicæ,” p. 10.
page 430 note † Il. iv. 48. II. xxiv. 69, 70.
page 430 note ‡ Il. xx. 299.
page 430 note § “ Contra Celsum,” iv. p. 216, Spencer.
page 430 note ║ See also fr. 209, clxxviii. in Goettling.
page 431 note * II. i. 575.
page 431 note † II. i. 601.
page 431 note ‡ Od. i. 25.
page 431 note § II. i. 424.
page 431 note ║ Il. xxiii. 206.
page 431 note ¶ Od. iii. 435.
page 431 note ** II. i..65.
page 431 note †† Il ix. 535.
page 431 note ‡‡ Od. v. 101.
page 431 note §§ Il. i 317.
page 431 note ║║ Il viii. 547.
page 432 note * Od. iii. 371-382.
page 433 note * Il. ix. 497.
page 433 note † The verse is quoted anonymously by Plato : it is ascribed to Hesiod by Suidas and Macarius.
page 433 note ‡ Il. vi. 266.
page 433 note § Od. iv. 753.
page 434 note * Il. xvi. 225-250.
page 434 note † “Homeric Studies,” vol ii. p. 436.
page 434 note ‡ Il. iv. 34.
page 434 note § Il. v. 289.
page 434 note ║ Il. xxiii. 23.
page 434 note ¶ Il. xxiii. 171-182.
page 435 note * Il iii. 103, 104, 245, 268, 310.
page 435 note † Il. xix. 268.
page 435 note ‡ Od. xii. 357, 362.
page 436 note * “Nachhomerische Theologie,” p. 207Google Scholar; see also K. F. Hermann's “ Lehrbuch der gottesdienstlichen Alterthümer der Griechen,” which contains a very full notification of the passages in Greek writers relating to sacrifice.
page 436 note † P. 14, B.
page 436 note ‡ P. 14, C.
page 436 note § P. 290, C, D. Prof. Jowett's Translation.
page 436 note ║ Rep..ii. p. 364, C, E.
page 437 note * Legg, x. p. 906 E. Prof. Jowett's Translation.
page 437 note † Herod, v. c. 92.
page 437 note ‡ Many examples given by Lasaulx, p. 259; see also Gerhard, , “Abhandlungen,” vol ii. p. 340.Google Scholar
page 438 note * Eth. Nic. viii. 9.
page 438 note † Porphyry, “ De Abst.” ii. 21, who quotes the following line from Empedocles :— 
page 438 note ‡ In his Dissertations on the Eumenides of Æschylus, p. 112 of the English translation.
page 439 note * Argon, iv. 702-715.
page 439 note † We give here a literal translation of the passage in the Argonautica :—“ But immediately Circe recognised the doom that entailed flight and the crime of murder.* Wherefore, revering the law of suppliant Zeus, who is mightily angry, but mightily aids the slayers of men, she offered up a sacrifice such as that by which guilty suppliants purify themselves when they come to the hearth. First of all, stretching above as a purification of unalterable murder, the offspring of a sow whose breasts still flowed from the productive womb, she moistened her hands with blood, cutting its neck; and, on the other hand, she soothed the god with other libations, calling on purifying Zeus, the helper of murderous supplications (i.e., supplications made on account of murder). And the attendant Naiads, who procured each thing for her, carried away all the pollutions in a mass out of the house, and she within, beside the hearth, burned cakes and soothing foods, offering up vows of dry sacrifices, in order that she might make the dreadful Erinyes cease from their anger, and he himself might become propitious and gentle to both, whether they come with their hands polluted by a stranger's blood or by that of a kinsman.”— iv. 698-717.
The scholiast says, on v. 704, “
is the purifying portion (
), namely, a little pig, which is sacrificed by those who purify, and then they moisten with its blood the hands of the person who is being purified.”
page 439 note ‡ Xen. Cyrop. vii. 2, 19.
page 439 note § Legg. ix. 872, D.
page 439 note * She knew that Jason had committed murder.
page 440 note * 
.—Prof. Jowett's translation.
page 440 note † vii. 133.
page 440 note ‡ Legg. ix. 865.
page 440 note § Prof. Jowett's translation.
page 441 note * Herod, i. 167.
page 441 note † Herod. iv. 149.
page 441 note ‡ Minos, c. v. p. 315, C.
page 441 note § Rep. viii. c. xvi. p. 565. D.
page 442 note * This clause Stallbaum deems corrupt. He would read, “We hear, in the case of others, that they did not dare to taste the ox, and,” &c.
page 443 note * Nub. 257.
page 443 note † Apoll. Bibl. i. c. ix. 1-5.
page 443 note ‡ The father of Athamas, according to Lauer, Æolus, is the variegated sky (des bunten Himmels) “System der Griech. Mythologie,” p. 219.
Phrixos, written with, an i, is, according to Lauer, Cloud (Wolke); according to Preller, the fertilising rain, from 
, which is used to express the bristling shiver of rain (von starrenden Schauer des Regens (Gr. Myth. ii. 210).
Helle, according to Lauer, is the gleaming cloud (leuchtende Wolke); according to Preller, the light-gleam of the heights inhabited by Zeus (Lichtglanz der von Zeus bewohnten Höhen).
Ino, according to Lauer, is an earth-goddess (Io Erdgottheit); according to Preller, a sky and sea-goddess (eine Himmels-und Meeresgöttin).
The ram is, according to Preller, the symbol of the fertilising cloud (das Symbol der befruchtenden Wolke).
Zeus Laphystios, according to Lauer, is the heaven that sucks up the clouds (der die Wolken aufsaugende Himmel); according to Preller, the dark Zeus of storms and winter (der finstre Zeus der Stürme und des Winters).
page 445 note * Photius Bibl. Cod. 279, p. 534, A. 2, Bekker.
page 446 note * Equit. 1131, Velsen's text.
page 446 note † We give the original of Tzetzes—specimens of the versus politici or accentual verses—
page 447 note * Agam. v. 220.
page 447 note † Ibid. v. 1420.
page 448 note * El. 566.
page 448 note † Iph. in Tauri, 380.
page 448 note ‡ The reading is doubtful. Some read, “A maiden to Demeter.”
page 448 note § Heraclidæ, 411.
page 448 note ║ Ibid. 580.
page 449 note * Phœnissæ, 938.
page 449 note † Hec. 41.
page 449 note ‡ Ibid. 224, 521.
page 449 note § Ibid. 532.
page 450 note * C. 24.
page 450 note † Writers on mythology all allow that Iphigenia was the goddess Artemis herself (see Preller, i. 195); Macaria is Eastern, and connected with the Tyrian Heracles (Gerhard, Griech. Myth. sect. 646, 2 b); and Polyxena is a goddess of the dead (Gerhard, sect. 884, 4).
page 451 note * v. 1179, Prof. Plumptre's Translation.
page 451 note † Herod, ii. c. 39.
page 451 note ‡ Rawlinson's Translation.
page 451 note § The reading 
is a questionable emendation ; but the point has no bearing on our present subject.
page 452 note * This mode of speaking is eminently characteristic of the Christian writers. “ But we must not bribe,” says Tatian, “ the ineffable God; for he who needs nothing, must not be misrepresented by us as being needy.” The same word 
occurs in both. (Tatian, Orat. ad Græcos, c. 4.) “ Worshipping God who needs not 
blood and libations and incense” (Justin Martyr, Apol. i. 13). See also Acts xvii. 25.
page 452 note † Isis and Osiris, 25.
page 453 note * 2 Apol. c. 5, Translation of the Ante-Nicene Library.
page 453 note † Fab. xxv.
page 453 note ‡ Fab xxvii.
page 453 note § Fab. viii.
page 458 note * Plutarch frequently refers to mythic sacrifices. These are all noticed in the text except the following:—“When a famine prevailed at Lacedæmon, the god gave an oracle to the effect that it would cease if they sacrificed a noble virgin every year. On one occasion the lot fell on Helen, and, as she was led forth arrayed for the sacrifice, an eagle flew down and snatched away the sword, and carrying it to the herds laid it upon a heifer, in consequence of which they refrained from the slaughter of virgins. This is related by Aristodemus in his third collection of myths, 
” (Greek and Roman Parallels, xxxv.; Moralia, p. 314, C). Who this Aristodemus was is uncertain.
page 458 note † The words of Athenæus are peculiar : 
“On whom also his lover Aristodemus died,” probably implying that he slew himself on the dead body of his favourite. The word 
occurs in Plato with the meaning, “ to die immediately after.”
page 459 note * The text here presents difficulties. It has simply, 
: “ Men having slain and stained the altars with blood.” I think that the context suggests 
“ Men having slain each other.” Eusebius, in his “ Demonstratio Evangelica” (i. 10), paraphrases the passage from Porphyry, thus: “ 
” p. 34; and certainly Porphyry may have meant simply animals, whether men or beasts, if he wrote 
without any object. Perhaps I am too definite in saying that Porphyry places human sacrifices before animal. He certainly seems to do so. But he is not very precise; and he may really have not definitely put the question to himself, regarding human and animal sacrifices under the one category of sacrifices of living beings.
The chapter in the “ Demonstratio Evangelica” deserves special study, because sentences taken from it without the context may mislead. Lasaulx, p. 255, and Nägelsbach, p. 194, have quoted from this chapter the words, 
But they have not stated that Eusebius explains how the pious Greeks of the olden time objected to animal sacrifices entirely. He affirms that it was the Hebrews who offered up animal sacrifices, and they did this enlightened in their souls by the Divine Spirit. It is of them that the words quoted are spoken, with this reason assigned, 
page 460 note * See Gerhard's, “Griech. Mythologie,” p. 353.Google Scholar
page 460 note † Them. c. 32 (see Clinton, iii. p. 520).
page 460 note ‡ See Diels in the Rheinisches Museum, 1876, p. 8.
page 461 note * Translation in Ante-Nicene Library.
page 462 note * See Parœmiographi Græci, Leutsch, vol. ii. p. 735.
page 462 note † Dorians, vol. i. p. 260, Transl.
page 463 note * Fast. Hell. vol. i. p. 134, note v.
page 464 note * Welcker thinks that human sacrifices were attacked by Sophocles in his Athamas, by Achæus n his Azanes, and possibly by Xenocles in his Lycaon.—Die Griechischen Tragödien, vol. iii. p. 965.
page 464 note † Hyp. iii. 24, p. 209.
page 464 note ‡ Welcker, , “Griechische Götterlehre,” ii. p. 769.Google Scholar