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MUSIC, MORALITY AND SYMPATHY IN THE EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY ENGLISH SERMON
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 February 2020
Abstract
While the furrows of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century religious writing on music have been deeply ploughed, eighteenth-century English sermons about music have received relatively slight scholarly attention. This article demonstrates that the ideas of sympathy and sensibility characteristic of so much eighteenth-century thought are vital to understanding these sermons. There is an evolution in this literature of the notion of sympathy and its link to musical morality, a development in the attitude towards music among clergy, with this art of sympathetic vibrations receiving ever higher approbation during the century's middle decades. By the time that Adam Smith was articulating his Theory of Moral Sentiments (1759) and Handel's oratorios stood as a fixture of English musical life, religious thinkers had cast off old concerns about music's sensuality. They came to embrace a philosophy that accepted music as moral simply because it made humankind feel, and in turn accepted feeling as the root of all sociable experience. This understanding places the music sermon of the eighteenth century within the context of some of the most discussed philosophical, social, literary, musical and moral-aesthetic concepts of the time.
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References
1 For a rare example of a scholarly work that takes eighteenth-century sermons as serious sources on musical aesthetics see Dubois, Pierre, ‘“The Organ and Its Music Vindicated”: “Music Sermons” in Eighteenth-Century England’, BIOS: Journal of the British Institute of Organ Studies 31 (2007), 40–64Google Scholar. I am deeply indebted to Dubois's pioneering work on this topic, which touches on many of the same topics that I do in the present article, including the significance of sympathy in understanding the music sermon. See also the following: Smith, Ruth, Handel's Oratorios and Eighteenth-Century Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, especially chapter 3, ‘Music, Morals, and Religion’, 81–107; Smith, Ruth, ‘Intellectual Contexts of Handel's English Oratorios’, in Music in Eighteenth-Century England: Essays in Memory of Charles Cudworth, ed. Hogwood, Christopher and Luckett, Richard (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 115–133Google Scholar; Pink, Andrew, ‘Order and Uniformity, Decorum, and Taste: Sermons Preached at the Anniversary Meeting of the Three Choirs, 1720–1800’, in The Oxford Handbook of the British Sermon, 1689–1901, ed. Francis, Keith A. and Gibson, William (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 215–228Google Scholar. For a recent overview of these issues in the sixteenth century see Willis, Jonathan, Church Music and Protestantism in Post-Reformation England: Discourses, Sites and Identities (New York: Routledge, 2010)Google Scholar. For a detailed overview of the music sermon in the seventeenth century see Christina Scott Edelen, ‘Music and Morality in Seventeenth-Century England’ (PhD dissertation, University of Houston, 2008). Susan Tara Brown also discusses the aesthetics of music sermons of the seventeenth century in Singing and the Imagination of Devotion: Vocal Aesthetics in Early English Protestant Culture (Eugene: Wipf and Stock, 2008).
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5 For one scholar who has placed music sermons within the broader music aesthetic writing of the eighteenth century see Semi, Maria, Music as a Science of Mankind in Eighteenth-Century Britain, trans. Keates, Timothy (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012), especially 11–13Google Scholar.
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7 Keith A. Francis and William Gibson, Preface to The Oxford Handbook of the British Sermon, 1689–1901, xiii. For similar views see the following: Spaeth, Donald A., The Church in an Age of Danger: Parsons and Parishioners, 1660–1740 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 4CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Maltby, Judith D., Prayer Book and People in Elizabethan and Early Stuart England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998)Google Scholar; Gibson, William, The Church of England, 1688–1832: Unity and Accord (New York: Routledge, 2001), 11–14Google Scholar.
8 The estimate of 350 sermons annually comes from William Gibson, ‘The British Sermon 1689–1901: Quantities, Performance, and Culture’, in The Oxford Handbook of the British Sermon, 1689–1901, 6, and the counts for a publisher's career are given on 6, 20 and 24. The more modest figure of 187 comes from the English Short Title Catalogue http://estc.bl.uk, searching title field ‘sermon’ for the years 1700–1800.
9 Gibson, ‘The British Sermon 1689–1901’, 19–20. Johnson quoted in Legg, J. Wickham, English Church Life from the Restoration to the Tractarian Movement, Considered in Some of Its Neglected or Forgotten Features (London: Longmans, Green, 1914), 5Google Scholar.
10 Gibson, ‘The British Sermon 1689–1901’, 4; Cooke, John, The Preacher's Assistant (after the Manner of Mr. Letsome) Containing a Series of the Texts of Sermons and Discourses Published Either Singly, or in Volumes (Oxford: Printed for Cook at the Clarendon Press, 1783)Google Scholar, ‘A List of all the Abbreviations Used in This Work’, vii–xi.
11 Smith, Handel's Oratorios and Eighteenth-Century Thought, 83.
12 Dubois identified sixty-five music sermons published between 1694 and 1838 in an appendix to ‘The Organ and Its Music Vindicated’, 60–61. My list of eighty-four entries spans 1700–1799.
13 Cooke, The Preacher's Assistant, ‘A List of all the Abbreviations Used in This Work’, vii–xi.
14 On the history of the Festival see the following: Lysons, , Origin and Progress of the Meeting of the Three Choirs of Gloucester, Worcester, and Hereford, and of the Charity Connected with It. (Gloucester: D. Walker, 1812)Google Scholar; Shaw, Watkins, The Three Choirs Festival: The Official History of the Meetings of the Three Choirs of Gloucester, Hereford and Worcester c. 1713–1953 (London: E. Baylis, 1954)Google Scholar; Still, Barry, ed., Two Hundred and Fifty Years of the Three Choirs Festival (Gloucester: The Three Choirs Festival Association, 1977)Google Scholar; Boden, Anthony, Three Choirs: A History of the Festival at Gloucester, Hereford, Worcester (Stroud: Sutton, 1992), 3Google Scholar. The festival's current website is located at http://www.3choirs.org/.
15 John Boydell, The Church-Organ: Or, a Vindication of Grave and Solemn Musick in Divine Service. In a Discourse at the Opening of the New Organ, Erected in St. Oswald's, Ashbourn, Com. Derb. A.D. 1727 (London: author, 1727); Samuel Fawconer, Church-Music an Help to Devotion: A Sermon Preached in the Parish-Church of St. Michael, Bassishaw, on Sunday, May 29, 1763, at the Opening of an Organ Lately Erected in the Said Church, by Samuel Fawconer, Assistant Preacher at Grosvenor-Chapel and Lecturer of St. Michael, Bassishaw (London: J. Rivington and J. Robson, 1763); Thomas Macro, The Melody of the Heart. A Sermon Preach'd at the Opening of an Organ in St. Nicholas's Church, in Great Yarmouth, December the 20th 1733. By Thomas Macro, D. D. Minister of Yarmouth. Publish'd at the Request of the Corporation (London: W. Parker, 1734).
16 Pink, ‘Order and Uniformity, Decorum, and Taste’, 223; Smith, Handel's Oratorios and Eighteenth-Century Thought, 88.
17 Dubois, ‘The Organ and Its Music Vindicated’, 50.
18 Defoe, Benjamin, A New English Dictionary, Containing a Collection of Words in the English Language, Properly Explain'd and Alphabetically Dispos'd (London: John Brindley, Olive Payne, John Jolliffe, Alexander Lyon, Charles Corbett and Richard Wellington, 1735)Google Scholar.
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20 Johnson, A Dictionary of the English Language. The definitions of ‘sensibility’ here are Johnson's nos 2 and 5 under ‘sensible’.
21 For a broad overview of the philosophical roots of sentimentalism see Todd, Janet, ‘The Philosophical Background’, chapter 1 in Sensibility: An Introduction (New York: Methuen, 1986)Google Scholar; Barker-Benfield, G. J., The Culture of Sensibility: Sex and Society in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992)Google Scholar, especially 105–141; Motooka, Wendy, ‘Common Sense, Moral Sense, and Nonsense: Sentimentalism and the Empirical Study of Invisible Things’, chapter 2 in The Age of Reasons: Quixotism, Sentimentalism, and Political Economy in Eighteenth-Century Britain (London: Routledge, 1998)Google Scholar; and Lamb, Jonathan, The Evolution of Sympathy in the Long Eighteenth Century (London: Pickering and Chatto, 2009)Google Scholar.
22 Smith, Adam, Theory of Moral Sentiments (London: A. Millar, A. Kincaid and J. Bell, 1759)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, section 3, ‘Of Mutual Sympathy’, 364.
23 Adam Smith, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 2. My italics.
24 Crane, R. S., ‘Suggestions toward a Genealogy of the “Man of Feeling”’, English Literary History 1/3 (1934), 207CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
25 Crane, ‘Suggestions toward a Genealogy’, 212. His citation is of Shaftesbury, Characteristicks of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times (London: [John Darby,] 1711), volume 1, 37.
26 For a description of the ever-softening attitudes of eighteenth-century sermons see McGowen, Randall, ‘The Changing Face of God's Justice: The Debates over Divine and Human Punishment in Eighteenth-Century England’, Criminal Justice History 9 (1988)Google Scholar, especially 73–78. See also Barker-Benfield, The Culture of Sensibility, 69.
27 This phrase comes from a sermon by Stephens, George, The Amiable Quality of Goodness as Compared with Righteousness (London, 1725)Google Scholar.
28 Barker-Benfield, The Culture of Sensibility, 67. As an example, he cites Robert South in 1662 pointing to Christ's own tears as important indicators of his empathetic nature.
29 Fiering, Norman, ‘Irresistible Compassion: An Aspect of Eighteenth-Century Sympathy and Humanitarianism’, Journal of the History of Ideas 37/2 (1976), 200CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Fiering's language is echoed almost verbatim by Gary Ebersol: spontaneous emotive and physical responses were, he says, ‘natural revelations of God's moral expectations of human beings, [and] they were also signals to persons for action’ (in Captured by Texts: Puritan to Postmodern Images of Indian Captivity (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1995), 111; my italics).
30 Thomas Bisse, A Rationale on Cathedral Worship or Choir-Service. A Sermon Preach'd in the Cathedral Church of Hereford, at the Anniversary Meeting of the Choirs of Worcester, Glocester, and Hereford, Sept. 7. 1720. By Tho Bisse, D. D. and Chancellor of the Said Church. Publish'd at the Request of the Audience (London: W. and J. Innys, 1720); Peter Senhouse, The Right Use and Improvement of Sensitive Pleasures, and More Particularly of Musick. A Sermon Preach'd in the Cathedral Church of Gloucester, at the Anniversary Meeting of the Choirs of Gloucester, Hereford, and Worcester, September 20, 1727. By Peter Senhouse, A.M. Prebendary of the Collegiate Church of Brecon, and Vicar of Linton (Gloucester: John Palman, 1728).
31 See, for instance, Plato, Republic, 401a–402c.
32 Thomas Bisse, A Sermon Preach'd in the Cathedral Church of Hereford at the Anniversary Meeting of the Three Choirs Glocester, Worcester, Hereford, September 3, 1729, by Thomas Bisse, D.D. Chancellor of the Said Church (London: William Innys, 1729), 20.
33 Anthony Boden has provided important information about the history of the Three Choirs Festival, and the uniqueness of this type of gathering in the politically unstable years in which it was founded. See his Three Choirs: A History of the Festival, 3–9.
34 Thomas Bisse, Musick the Delight of the Sons of Men: A Sermon Preached at the Cathedral Church of Hereford, at the Anniversary Meeting of the Three Choirs, Glocester, Worcester, Hereford, September 7, 1726 (London: William and John Innys, 1726), 22–23.
35 Bisse, Musick the Delight of the Sons of Men, 7–8. Original italics.
36 Bisse, Musick the Delight of the Sons of Men, 10.
37 Bisse, A Rationale on Cathedral Worship, 19.
38 Henry Abbot, The Use and Benefit of Church-Musick, towards Quickning Our Devotion. A Sermon Preach'd in the Cathedral-Church of Gloucester, Worcester, and Hereford. September 9, 1724, by Henry Abbot, M. A. Chaplain to the Right Honourable Allen, Lord Bathurst (London: Jonah Bowyer, 1724), 14.
39 Bisse, A Rationale on Cathedral Worship, 24–25.
40 Abbot, The Use and Benefit of Church-Musick, 13.
41 James Brooke, The Duty and Advantage of Singing to the Lord. A Sermon Preach'd in the Cathedral-Church of Worcester, at the Anniversary Meeting of the Choirs . . . Sept. 4, 1728 . . . By James Brooke, M.A. Rector of Hill-Croome and Vicar of Hanley-Castle (London: Samuel Mountfort, 1728), 22.
42 Bisse, A Rationale on Cathedral Worship, 22–23; Brooke, The Duty and Advantage of Singing to the Lord, 23–24.
43 Bisse, A Rationale on Cathedral Worship, 21.
44 Abbot, The Use and Benefit of Church-Musick, 15.
45 George Lavington, The Influence of Church-Music. A Sermon Preach'd in the Cathedral-Church of Worcester, at the Anniversary Meeting of the Three Choirs . . . September 8, 1725 . . . By George Lavington, L.L.B. Canon of the Church of Worcester (London: James and John Knapton and Samuel Mountfort, 1725), 5.
46 Bisse, A Rationale on Cathedral Worship, 24.
47 Abbot, The Use and Benefit of Church-Musick, 14.
48 Coningesby, GeorgeChurch-Musick Vindicated, and the Causes of Its Dislike Enquired into: A Sermon Preach'd at the Cathedral Church of Hereford (Oxford: Richard Clements, 1733), 17–18Google Scholar.
49 Lavington, The Influence of Church-Music, 25.
50 Brooke, The Duty and Advantage of Singing to the Lord, 16.
51 Lavington, The Influence of Church-Music, 3, 26.
52 Bedford, Arthur, The Great Abuse of Musick (London: John Wyatt, 1711), 209Google Scholar. On Bedford's reputation and the influence of this volume see the following: Pruett, James, ‘Arthur Bedford: English Polemicist of the Restoration’, in A Festschrift for Albert Seay (Colorado Springs: Colorado College Press, 1982)Google Scholar; Young, J. Bradford, ‘The Great Abuse of Musick, 1711’, Fontes Artis Musicae 32/3 (1985), 148–152Google Scholar; and Weber, The Rise of Musical Classics, 47–56.
53 Brooke, The Duty and Advantage of Singing to the Lord, 26.
54 Brooke, The Duty and Advantage of Singing to the Lord, 18.
55 Bisse, Musick the Delight of the Sons of Men, 57.
56 William Dingley, Cathedral Service Decent and Useful. A Sermon Preach'd before the University of Oxford at St. Mary's on Cecilia's Day, 1713, by W. Dingley B. D. Fellow of C.C.C. Publish'd at the Request of the Lovers of Church-Musick (Oxford: Anthony Peisley, 1713), 14 (original italics); Collier, Jeremy, A Short View of the Immorality, and Profaneness of the English Stage Together with the Sense of Antiquity on This Argument (London: S. Keble, R. Sare and H. Hindmarsh, 1698), 279–280Google Scholar. See also Smith, Handel's Oratorios and Eighteenth-Century Thought, 83–84.
57 Abbot, The Use and Benefit of Church-Musick, 10.
58 Luke Milbourne, Psalmody Recommended in a Sermon Preach'd to the Company of Parish-Clerks, at St. Alban's Woodstreet, November 17, at St. Giles's in the Fields, November 22, 1712, and Now Publish'd at the Desire of the Hearers (London: J. Downing, 1713), 26.
59 Lavington, The Influence of Church-Music, 21.
60 Thomas Naish, A Sermon Preached at the Cathedral Church of Sarum, November the 30th, 1727. Being the Anniversary Day Appointed for the Meeting of the Society of Lovers of Musick. By Thomas Naish, M. A. Sub-Dean of Sarum (London: James Lacy, John Cooke and Edward Easton, 1727), 18–19.
61 Bisse, A Rationale on Cathedral Worship, 63–64. See also John Harper, The Natural Efficacy of Music to Prepare the Mind for Good Impressions: A Sermon Preach'd in the Cathedral-Church of Gloucester, at the Anniversary Meeting of the Choirs of Gloucester, Worcester and Hereford, September 2, 1730 (Oxford: Richard Clements, 1730), 18.
62 Lavington, The Influence of Church-Music, 24.
63 Milbourne, Psalmody Recommended, 32.
64 Bisse, A Rationale on Cathedral Worship, 61–62.
65 Lavington, The Influence of Church-Music, 14–15.
66 Lavington, The Influence of Church-Music, 15. Compare Abbot, The Use and Benefit of Church-Musick, 20.
67 See Van Sant, Ann Jessie, Eighteenth-Century Sensibility and the Novel: The Senses in Social Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993)Google Scholar.
68 Brooke, The Duty and Advantage of Singing to the Lord, 28.
69 Bisse, A Rationale on Cathedral Worship, 59.
70 Lavington, The Influence of Church-Music, 23.
71 Thomas Naish, Sarum a Comfort. A Sermon Preach'd at the Cathedral Church of Sarum, November the 30th, 1726. Being the Anniversary Day Appointed for the Meeting of the Society of Lovers of Musick, by Thomas Naish, M. A. Sub-Dean of Sarum (London: James Lacy, John Cooke and Edward Easton, 1726), 17.
72 Bisse, A Rationale on Cathedral Worship, 29. Bisse argues that such insensibility is due to either physical or spiritual defects in a person's constitution; see pages 26–29. See also Abbot, The Use and Benefit of Church-Musick, 22, and Lavington, The Influence of Church-Music, 8.
73 Henry Procter, A Sermon Preach'd at the Cathedral-Church of Hereford on Wednesday, September 12, 1750, at the Anniversary Meeting of the Three Choirs . . . By Henry Procter, A.B., Vicar of Orleton (Gloucester: Procter, 1750), 9.
74 Procter, A Sermon Preach'd at the Cathedral-Church of Hereford, 14. Original italics.
75 Robert Eden, The Harmony of Benevolence: A Sermon Preached on the Cathedral-Church of Worcester, September 10, 1755, at the Annual Meeting of the Three Choirs of Worcester, Gloucester and Hereford (London: W. Sandby, 1755), 10. Original italics.
76 The phrase ‘agreeable Harmony of Human Society’ comes from Eden, The Harmony of Benevolence, 10; Shaftesbury's well-known work on the moral sense is his Characteristicks of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times.
77 William Parker, The Pleasures of Gratitude and Benevolence Improved by Church-Musick. A Sermon Preach'd at the Anniversary Meeting of the Three Choirs . . . in the Cathedral Church at Hereford, on Wednesday, Sept. 12, 1753. By William Parker, B.D., Rector of Little Ilford in Essex, Minister of St. Catherine Cree, London, and F.R.S. (London: James Fletcher, 1753), 10.
78 Eden, The Harmony of Benevolence, 12.
79 Eden, The Harmony of Benevolence, 12–13.
80 Eden, The Harmony of Benevolence; Shaftesbury, Characteristicks of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times, quoted in Digby Cotes, Music a Rational Assistant in the Duty of Praise When United with Charity. A Sermon Preach'd in the Cathedral-Church of Hereford, September 15, 1756, at the Annual Meeting of the Three Choirs . . . By Digby Cotes, M.A., Rector of Door, and Chaplain to the Right Reverend the Lord Bishop of Bangor (London: James Wilde, 1756), 10–11. Italics in Cotes.
81 Cotes, Music a Rational Assistant, 16.
82 William Taswell, The Propriety and Usefulness of Sacred Musick: A Sermon Preach'd in the Cathedral-Church of Gloucester at the Anniversary Meeting of the Three Choirs of Gloucester, Worcester, and Hereford, September 8, 1742. And Publish'd at Their Joint Request, (for the Use of Their Charity) by William Taswell, M.A. Vicar of Wotton-Underedge (Gloucester: C. Hitch, J. Fletcher and W. Thurlbourne, 1742), 23. My italics.
83 Taswell, The Propriety and Usefulness of Sacred Musick, 24.
84 Daniel Brooker, Cathedral Music, Skilfully and Religiously Performed, a Reasonable Service. A Sermon Preach'd in the Cathedral Church of Worcester, at the Anniversary Meeting . . . By D. Brooker, Vicar of St. Peter's in the City of Worcester, and Minor Canon of the Cathedral in the Said City (London: J. and J. Bonwicke, 1743), 3.
85 Thomas Morell, The Use and Importance of Music in the Sacrifice of Thanksgiving. A Sermon Preach'd at Worcester, September 3, 1746, at the Anniversary Meeting of the Three Choirs . . . By T. Morell, D.D., Rector of Buckland in Hertfordshire (London: M. Cooper, J. Oliver and J. Pote, 1747), 21. Original italics.
86 Morell, The Use and Importance of Music, 18.
87 Cotes, Music a Rational Assistant, 10.
88 Parker, The Pleasures of Gratitude and Benevolence, 16–17.
89 Thomas Payne, A Defence of Church-Musick. A Sermon Preach'd in the Cathedral-Church of Hereford, at the Anniversary Meeting of the Three Choirs, Worcester, Glocester, and Hereford (Oxford: James Fletcher, 1738), 27.
90 Morell, The Use and Importance of Music, 5–6.
91 Parker, The Pleasures of Gratitude and Benevolence, 10.
92 Parker, The Pleasures of Gratitude and Benevolence, 11.
93 Parker, The Pleasures of Gratitude and Benevolence, 3–4.
94 Parker, The Pleasures of Gratitude and Benevolence, 5.
95 Parker, The Pleasures of Gratitude and Benevolence, 4–5.
96 Parker, The Pleasures of Gratitude and Benevolence, 5–6.
97 Morell, The Use and Importance of Music, 21; see also 3–4.
98 Benjamin Newton, The Church of England's Apology for the Use of Music in Her Services. A Sermon Preach'd in the Cathedral-Church of Gloucester, September 10, 1760, at the Annual Meeting of the Three Choirs . . . By Benjamin Newton, M.A., Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge (Gloucester: R. Raikes, 1760), 16–17.
99 Cotes, Music a Rational Assistant, 167.
100 Cotes, Music a Rational Assistant, 18.
101 Cotes, Music a Rational Assistant, 17.
102 Cotes, Music a Rational Assistant, 17.
103 Bisse, Musick the Delight of the Sons of Men, 38–39.
104 Bisse, Musick the Delight of the Sons of Men, 38.
105 Bisse, Musick the Delight of the Sons of Men, 42.
106 Banner, Richard, The Use and Antiquity of Musick in the Service of God: A Sermon Preach'd in the Cathedral-Church at Worcester, September 14, 1737 (Oxford: printed at the Theatre, 1737)Google Scholar; Payne, A Defence of Church-Musick.
107 Taswell, The Propriety and Usefulness of Sacred Musick, 27.
108 Taswell, The Propriety and Usefulness of Sacred Musick, 27–28.
109 Taswell, The Propriety and Usefulness of Sacred Musick, 31.
110 Cotes, Music a Rational Assistant, 21.
111 Morell, The Use and Importance of Music, 32–33. Morell does not give a reference here, but it seems possible that he was referring to the recent work of Turnbull, George, The Principles of Moral and Christian Philosophy (London: J. Noon, 1740)Google Scholar, volume 2, 271.
112 Newton, The Church of England's Apology for the Use of Music in Her Services, 26.
113 William Hughes, The Efficacy and Importance of Musick. A Sermon Preach'd in the Cathedral Church of Worcester, at the Annual Meeting of the Three Choirs . . . Wednesday, Septempter [sic] 13, 1749 . . . By William Hughes, M.A., Minor Canon of the Cathedral-Church of Worcester (London: S. Mountfort Jr, 1749), 22.
114 Hughes, The Efficacy and Importance of Musick, 23.
115 Parker, The Pleasures of Gratitude and Benevolence, 27–28.
116 Parker, The Pleasures of Gratitude and Benevolence, 28.
117 Parker, The Pleasures of Gratitude and Benevolence, 13.
118 Cotes, Music a Rational Assistant, 15.