An outbreak of pharyngoconjunctival fever caused by adenovirus type 3 was studied in a boarding school for 800 boys aged 11–18 years. A total of 96 clinical cases were confirmed by laboratory tests. Clinical infection rates were higher in the younger boys but total infection rates did not vary with age. Previous infection provided 88% protection against reinfection.

The techniques of virus isolation, complement fixation and neutralization were compared in the diagnosis of cases. Virus isolation diagnosed 86% of confirmed cases. Where acute sera (collected at onset) and convalescent sera (collected within one month) were available complement fixation and neutralization tests each diagnosed 96% of cases.

Between February and March 1981 an epidemic of hepatitis occurred in Kolhapur City, Maharashtra State, India. Approximately 1200 cases of jaundice were reported; more than 300 patients were hospitalized and three died. The epidemiological investigations showed a distinct concentration of cases in municipal ward E of the city. Investigations of the ward E water supply system disclosed gross contamination of raw water with sewage at source. The serological studies revealed that the aetiological agent responsible for this epidemic was neither hepatitis A virus nor hepatitis B virus but was likely to have been due to a non-A, non-B hepatitis virus.

A large nosocomial outbreak of keratoconjunctivitis due to adenovirus type 8 is described. Two hundred cases were identified, 123 by isolation of the virus and 77 by detecting HI antibodies in convalescent sera. Infection usually presented as a severe keratoconjunctivitis, and 107 (54%) of infected patients developed sub-epithelial corneal opacities. The majority (66%) of infections were acquired at the accident and emergency department attached to a large urban eye hospital when patients attended for other reasons; trauma to the eye, especially corneal foreign bodies, was the most frequent cause for the initial attendance. Transmission of virus within the family occurred in 13% of cases, but there was little spread outside family or hospital environments. The outbreak lasted from May to September, 1982, but it was not confirmed by isolation of the virus until the end of June when control measures were instituted. Delay in applying control measures was probably the major factor accounting for this large, prolonged outbreak of epidemic keratoconjunctivitis.

Two groups of calves, one of three and the other of two animals, were purchased in markets and reared initially on a commercial veal unit for 1 month and 4 months respectively. They were then moved to the Veterinary School, Langford, and kept for a further 6 and 4 months respectively. The animals were sampled weekly and a continual turnover in the strains forming the majority Escherichia coli faecal flora was demonstrated for all calves. Antibacterial-drug resistance, as measured by an Antibiotic Resistance Index (ARI), increased after arrival on the veal unit and persisted at high levels during the whole of their stay. After moving to Langford the ARI fell. Initially there was a reduction in the average number of resistance determinants per resistant strain and then, after a delay of up to 8 weeks, by an increase in the proportion of isolates that were fully sensitive. The source of the sensitive strains was not ascertained, although their appearance was not associated specifically with either weaning or turning out to pasture.

Four groups of pregnant sows were inoculated with type O1 foot and mouth disease (FMD) oil emulsion vaccine at various times before farrowing and samples of the sow's serum, colostrum and milk, and piglet's serum, collected during the first week after farrowing, were analysed for FMD virus neutralizing activity.

No FMD neutralizing antibodies were detectable in the piglets serum at birth but they were present 1·5 h after suckling and peak titres were reached 1–3 days later. There was no significant difference between the antibody titres of colostrum samples collected from different teats at farrowing. However, similar samples collected 3 days later showed significant (P < 0·005) fore to hind variation. The principal FMD virus neutralizing antibody class present in the sow's serum at farrowing and in their 3-day-old piglets was governed by the inoculation schedule employed. When the last vaccinations were given ≃ 30 days before farrowing (dbf) the predominant FMD virus neutralizing class was IgG. However, when the sows were vaccinated only ≃ 12 dbf the predominant class was IgM. A significant correlation was observed between the sow's serum titres and colostrum titres at farrowing (r = 0·90), and also between sows colostrum titres at farrowing and their 3-day-old piglets serum titres (r = 0·99).

Small rodent (vole) sera were collected from three different locations in Norway. One of these was within the distribution area for Ixodes ricinus, and a tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus strain had been isolated from ticks collected there (Traavik & Mehl, 1977). The two other locations were outside the I. ricinus area, one in southern Norway, the other at nearly 70° N. The sera were tested for TBE antibodies by hemagglutination inhibition (HI), hemolysis-in-gel (HIG) and complement fixation (CFT). All sera were also tested for HI antibodies to Uukuniemi (UUK) virus, and some positive TBE HI reactions were verified by separation of immunoglobulins and serum lipoproteins in NaBr gradients.

Animals containing TBE virus antibodies reacting in all three serological tests and animals with UUK HI antibodies were detected only from the location within the I. ricinus area. From the two locations outside the I. ricinus area we found animals which had antibodies reacting with TBE virus in HI and HIG, but not in CFT. Antibodies to UUK were not detected. The results indicate that flavivirus(es) related to, but not identical with TBE viruses are transmitted by other vectors than I. ricinus in parts of Norway.

Bacterial contamination of floors and other surfaces in the operating suite has been investigated by contact impression plates during the past five years. Colony counts of the floors of operating rooms, cleaned with disinfectant, were 3·3 c.f.u./10 cm2; on the floors of semi-clean and dirty areas, cleaned with detergent, colony counts were 44·8 and 71·4 c.f.u./10 cm2 respectively. The highest colony counts of 487·4 c.f.u./10 cm2 were found in the dressing rooms, the floors of which were covered with carpets, cleaned with a vacuum cleaner. Mean bacterial numbers on surfaces of various equipment in operating rooms, cleaned with disinfectant, were 2·8 c.f.u./10 cm2. Bacterial numbers on surfaces decreased markedly from 253·2 to 11·9 c.f.u./10 cm2 following the use of disinfectant. Bacterial species found from various surfaces were mainly coagulase-negative staphylococci, derived from human beings. In the light of these findings the regular use of disinfectant for cleaning of the floors and other surfaces in operating rooms is advisable.

An outbreak of gastroenteritis caused by calicivirus began amongst residents and staff of an old persons home 24 hours after the proprietor's dog had been sick. Serological evidence suggests that the calicivirus isolated from one of the cases may be capable of infecting dogs as well as man. The virus strain responsible for this outbreak differs antigenically from those associated with two other outbreaks in the U.K. and one in Japan. The characteristic morphology of calicivirus is lost if stool is stored at – 70°C.

Antibody determinations against H3N2 and H1N1 type A influenza viruses were carried out on paired sera obtained from volunteers taking part in influenza virus vaccine studies, using both the haemagglutination-inhibition (HI) and single radial haemolysis (SRH) test. Good correlation between the HI and SRH test was found for both H3N2 and H1N1 antibody and the zone area increases corresponding to significant SRH antibody rises determined for both virus strains. In both H3N2 and H1N1 vaccine studies, intranasal infection of the volunteers with live attenuated viruses was involved and by the measurement of HI and SRH antibodies prior to and following infection, levels of antibody equating with protection against the infecting viruses could be estimated. For the HI test the antibody titres associated with 50% protection were 42 for H1N1, and 44 for H3N2 viruses; for the SRH test, 50% protection was associated with zone areas of 20·0–25·0 mm2 for both H1N1 and H3N2 viruses.

Airborne contamination in an operating suite was studied with a slit sampler, settle plates and a light-scattering particle counter. In conventional operating rooms there was a significant difference between the empty rooms and rooms in use; the mean total bacterial count by a slit sampler changed from 1·1 in empty to 42·5 c.f.u./m3 in use (39 times increase), the settle plates count changed from 1·5 to 17·4 c.f.u./m2/min (12 times increase), and the mean total particle count changed from 56·9 to 546·7/1 (10 times increase) respectively. The increase was caused mainly by persons present in the room.

Another difference was found between zones in the operating suite; the bacterial count in the clean area doubled in the semi-clean area and further doubled in the dirty area in slit sampler count as well as settle plates count, and particle count in the clean area increased by 14 times in the semi-clean and dirty areas. This difference resulted from the different quality of the ventilating system.

Air cleanliness of operating rooms in use by persons present in the room dropped to a level between the clean and the semi-clean area in spite of the high quality of the ventilating system.

Bacterial species identified were mostly coagulase negative staphylococci and micrococci.

Our study indicates that reduction of airborne contamination in an operating suite is accomplished by the combination of an efficient ventilating system and the restriction of the number of persons present in the room.

Nephropathia epidemica (NE) antigen was detected by IFAT (indirect fluorescent antibody technique) in the lungs of 14 of 97 bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) collected in three endemic areas. The distribution of antigen positive voles within an endemic location was scattered. Antibodies to Korean hemorrhagic fever (KHF) virus antigens were detected by IFAT in 12 of 14 NE antigen positive bank voles and in 15 of 83 that were antigen negative. NE antigen positive voles exhibited higher antibody titres. Antibodies to KHF were demonstrated in sera from C. rutilus and C. rufocanus collected more than 200 km north of the distribution area for C. glareolus. It appears likely that these vole species can serve as virus vectors for NE cases occurring north of the bank vole area. NE antibodies cross-reacting with KHF virus seem to diminish with time after infection in some NE patients, while for others such cross-reacting antibodies were detected up to 12 years after the disease. Antibodies to KHF were detected in eight of 106 healthy forestry workers with no clinical history of NE. No serological cross-reactions were detected between NE/KHF antigens and representative Bunyaviridae present in Norway. NE/KHF-like viruses appear widespread in Norway, both within and outside of the distribution area of the bank vole.

The efficacy of three anticoagulant rodenticides for use against the Indian field mouse, Mus booduga, was evaluated in the laboratory. The poisons, namely warfarin, bromadiolone and brodifacoum, were all found to be toxic enough at the concentrations normally used against other commensal and field rodents. With brodifacoum (0·00125%), bromadiolone (0·005%) and warfarin (0·025%), 83% of the animals died respectively after 1, 1 and 6 days' feeding. It is suggested that brodifacoum and bromadiolone might be more economical than warfarin for use in practical rodent control.

To determine the pathogenic potential of the vesiculovirus Piry for domestic animals, two ponies, two steers, three sheep, three goats and three pigs were inoculated intradermally in the tongue or, in the case of the pigs, in the snout, heel and coronary band. Inoculated animals were housed in one room and allowed to mingle freely with an equal number of uninoculated contact animals of each species. Clinical signs of infection, consisting of elevated temperature and ulcers at the inoculation sites, were only observed in the ponies, but all inoculated animals developed specific antibody following inoculation. In addition, one of the contact sheep had neutralizing antibody to Piry at 7 and 29 days post inoculation suggesting a contact infection. Virus was not demonstrated in tissues, other than tongue, of any animal.

The failure of Piry virus to produce lesions in steers, sheep, goats and pigs and only limited ulcerations in ponies suggests that this virus is not similar pathogenically to New Jersey and Indiana strains of vesiculoviruses which produce classical vesicular stomatitis.

Lethal infections were produced by inoculation into suckling mice and hamsters, adult hamsters and embryonating chicken eggs. Further, lethal infections followed contact of adult female hamsters with their inoculated litters.

A virus of the Uukuniemi serogroup was isolated from various organs of a moribund kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla) and from ticks (Ixodes uriae) that were feeding on the bird. The kittiwake was found on Marsden beach, north-east England. This is the first virus in the family Bunyaviridae to have been isolated in England and only the second English arthropodborne virus after louping ill virus, family Togaviridae (Smith & Varma, 1981). The possibility of infection of humans by uukuviruses is discussed.

Features are described of a new staining method for the detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in faeces. Smears, fixed in acid-methanol, are stained with heated safranin and counterstained with methylene blue. Oocysts stain a vivid orange-pink and are easily recognized. The method is rapid and simple with little source of error. The method is more sensitive than currently recommended Ziehl-Neelson methods; of 26 cases of cryptosporidiosis diagnosed by the new method only 19 were detected by acid-fast and only 11 by acid-alcohol-fast methods. Oocysts can be stained by safranin-methylene blue after concentration by various methods, in paraffin-embedded material, and after storage for months at various temperatures.

A preparation of infectious human rotavirus, isolated from faeces and resuspended in wastewater effluent, was shown to be inactivated by chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone and peracetic acid. Infectivity was assayed in MA 104 cells by the detection of cell-associated viral antigen by immunofluorescence. The inactivation curves were similar to those reported for other enteric viruses. Human rotavirus was at least as resistant as poliovirus, coxsackievirus, echovirus and f2 coliphage and was strikingly less sensitive to inactivation than the simian rotavirus, SA11. The latter was generally the most sensitive of the six tested viruses yet is often taken as being representative of the human rotaviruses.

The detectability of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) viral antigen in both ante-mortem secretions and necropsy samples from experimentally infected goats was investigated by both the agar gel precipitation test (AGPT) and counterimmunoelectrophoresis (CIE). Viral antigen was detected from 42·6% of the samples tested by the AGPT and 80–3% by CIE. The detection of viral antigen in a high proportion of the ocular and nasal secretions as well as the faeces and buccal scrapings, particularly from those collected within seven days of the onset of fever, by both techniques, would seem to obviate the need for lymph node biopsies or post-mortem samples in order to make a diagnosis of PPRV infection.

This paper uses the techniques of time series analysis (autocorrelation and spectral analysis) to examine oscillatory secular trends in the incidence of infectious diseases and the impact of mass vaccination programmes on these well-documented phenomena. We focus on three common childhood diseases: pertussis and mumps (using published disease-incidence data for England and Wales) and measles (using data from England and Wales, Scotland, North America and France). Our analysis indicates highly statistically significant seasonal and longer-term cycles in disease incidence in the prevaccination era. In general, the longer-term fluctuations (a 2-year period for measles, 3-year periods for pertussis and mumps) account for most of the cyclical variability in these data, particularly in the highly regular measles series for England and Wales. After vaccination, the periods of the longer-term oscillations tend to increase, an observation which corroborates theoretical predictions. Mass immunization against measles (which reduces epidemic fluctuations) magnifies the relative importance of the seasonal cycles. By contrast, we show that high levels of vaccination against whooping cough in England and Wales appear to have suppressed the annual cycle.

Fifty-four Rotterdam patients in which a primary infection with Campylobacter jejuni had been detected (index patients) were compared with 54 control subjects with regard to the consumption and preparation of foods 7 days before onset of illness and the keeping of pet animals. Significantly more index patients than controls had eaten chicken meat (47 v. 29; P = 0·0002), particularly at barbecues (14 v. 2; P = 0·0015). Marginally more index patients had eaten pork (47 v. 39; P = 0·048) or inadequately heated meat (13 v. 8), though in the last case numbers were too small to be statistically significant. The consumption of beef or mutton and outdoor eating (other than at barbecues) were essentially the same in both groups. There was no significant association with the keeping of pet animals, although a few more index patients had cage birds than controls (18 v. 12).

Twenty-one (15%) of 130 household contacts of index patients also suffered from diarrhoea during the same period. Circumstantial evidence pointed to a common source of infection with the index patient in 13 instances (nine households) and probable intrafamilial spread of infection in six instances.

Campylobacters were isolated from one of 110 swabs of kitchen work surfaces and eight of 107 swabs taken from lavatory bowls in index households.