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Making Law Effective: Behavioural Insights into Compliance

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 November 2018

Nicoletta RANGONE
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Abstract

This paper investigates traditional and new tools for increasing the effectiveness of rules and enforcement strategies. As a preliminary concern, it underlines that there are two sides to effectiveness that cannot be approached separately: effectiveness as perfect compliance with the terms of rules, and effectiveness as a result of rules which incentivise behaviours to meet the “spirit of the law”. In order to achieve this comprehensive approach to effectiveness, rules must be evidence-based, plain, understandable and accepted. Moreover, a clear understanding of compliance drivers is needed. Deterrence and all other possible motivations that go beyond the rational calculus should be assessed by decision-makers, such as internal motivation, procedural fairness, cooperation, social norms, heuristics and bias. Enriching the rationality assumption with other drivers of compliance does not mean dismissing traditional rules or enforcement tools, which conversely remain crucial for the purpose of supporting voluntary compliance and for preventing non-compliance. However, deterrence should be calibrated by a risk-based, responsive and proportional approach to (simplified) rules and enforcement strategies. Trust in public authorities, supportive and cooperative public administrations are also fundamental in order to increase voluntary compliance, and a cognitive-based approach should complement these views.

Type
Symposium on Effective Law and Regulation
Information
European Journal of Risk Regulation , Volume 9 , Issue 3: Symposium on Effective Law and Regulation , September 2018 , pp. 483 - 501
Copyright
© Cambridge University Press 

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Footnotes

*

Lumsa University, Law and Economics.

References

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17 For instance, “individuals’ unethicality does not depend on the simple calculations of cost-benefit analysis, but rather depends on the social norms implied by the dishonesty of others and also on the saliency of dishonesty”: Gino, F, Ayal, S and Ariely, D, “Contagion and differentiation in unethical behavior: the effect of one bad apple on the barrel” (2009) 20(3) Psychological Science 393 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

18 Regulations must be divided into rules and principles, where the core element of rules is the content which directly affects the end users, differently from principles (such as free competition) which must be applied by rules: R Dworkin, Taking Rights Seriously (first published 1977, Harvard University Press 1997); M De Benedetto, M Martelli and N Rangone, La qualità delle regole (Il Mulino 2011) 13.

19 According to a traditional assumption (based on a certain view of separation of powers) “the administration exercises discretionary powers in individual cases, while rules concerning an undetermined class of subjects or even all of them are reserved to Parliament. But this view fails to provide an account of much of today’s activities of public administrations in two respects. First, there are individual decisions potentially affecting a large part of the population, such as the authorization to build and manage a nuclear plant. (…) Second, modern societies are not regulated only by legislation, but also by innumerable rules, often having a technical nature, issued by public administrations, for example, with regard to the marketing of pharmaceutical products and to the delivery of electronic communications”: Della Cananea, G, Due Process of Law Beyond the State: Requirements of Administrative Procedure (Oxford University Press 2016) pp 111–112 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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21 One challenge to effectiveness is obscure and ambiguous rules and regulatory inflation: E Bardach and RA Kagan, Going by the Book. Unreasonableness. A Twentieth Century Fund Report (Temple University Press 1982) 193.

22 Xanthaki, H, “Quality of legislation: an achievable universal concept or a utopian pursuit?” in M Travares Almeida (ed), Quality of Legislation (Nomos 2011) 75 ; Google Scholar Mousmouti, M, “Effectiveness as an Aspect of Quality of EU Legislation: is it feasible?” (2014) 2(3) The Theory and Practice of Legislation 309 Google Scholar.

23 Blanc, F, Inspection Reforms: Why, How and With What Results (OECD Publishing 2012)Google Scholar point 29. The so-called “Table of Eleven” determinants of compliance developed by The Netherlands in 2004 comprises 11 dimensions divided into two groups: the enforcement dimension group and those dealing with spontaneous compliance (composed by factors that affect voluntary compliance, ie in the absence of enforcement). In the latter, the level of knowledge and understanding of the rules, as well as the clarity of rules play a crucial role.

24 At European level, the European Parliament, the Council and the Commission made commitments “to update and simplify legislation and to avoid overregulation and administrative burdens for citizens, administrations and businesses, including SMEs, while ensuring that the objectives of the legislation are met”, and the European Commission “undertakes to present annually an overview, including an annual burden survey, of the results of the Union’s efforts to simplify legislation and to avoid overregulation and reduce administrative burdens” (point 48, Inter-Institutional Agreement for Better Law-making of 13 April 2016).

25 Baldwin, supra, note 14, p 16 ff.

26 Bardach and Kagan, supra, note 21, p 58; J Black, “Forms and Paradoxes of Principles Based Regulation” (2008) 13 LSE Legal Studies Working Paper 16; Baldwin, supra, note 14, p 179. These studies challenge the idea that precise and detailed rules discourage non-compliance by increasing deterrence and the probability of punishment, on one hand, and increasing settlements out of court and therefore also a return of resources, on the other: Ehrlich, I and Posner, RA, “An Economic Analysis of Legal Rule-making” (1974) 3(1) Journal of Legal Studies 257 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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30 As suggested by Feldman, supra, note 15.

31 Psychological experiments motivated by cognitive dissonance theory suggest that higher sanctions may increase crime: Akerlof, GA and Dickens, WT, “The Economic Consequences of Cognitive Dissonance” (1982) 72(3) The American Economic Review 318 Google Scholar; see also Frey, B, Not Just for the Money. An Economic Theory of Personal Motivation (Edward Elgar Publishing 1997) p 81 Google Scholar.

32 “Although the idea of exercising authority through social control is attractively simple, it has been widely suggested that in democratic societies the legal system cannot function if it can influence people only by manipulating rewards and costs (…). This type of leadership is impractical because government is obliged to produce benefits or exercise coercion every time it seeks to influence citizens’ behavior”: Tyler, TR , Why People Obey the Law (Yale University Press 1990) 22–23 Google Scholar. “The authority must constantly demonstrate their credibility by maintaining a high level of deterrent potential, something that is difficult and sometimes impossible to do given the fiscal constraints. While our society, for example, expends large amounts of money to make the risk of being caught and punished for murder sufficiently high to be a deterrent, it does not devote similarly high levels of resources to combating speeding, littering, or drinking in public streets”: TR Tyler, “Introduction” in TR Tyler (ed), Procedural Justice, vol I (Ashgate 2005) xv and xvi.

33 Kagan, R and Scholz, JT, “The ‘Criminology of Corporation’ and Regulatory Enforcement Strategies” in K Hawkins and JM Thomas (eds), Enforcing Regulation (Kluwer-Nijhoff Publishing 1984) 73 Google Scholar.

34 Baldwin, supra, note 14, p 142. In the enforcement phase, while the move toward aggressive and legalistic enforcement should increase compliance (“inspectors armed with severe sanctions and instructed to act like policemen are not likely to be ignored”), this result should not blind to the fact that “unreasonableness and unresponsiveness associated with those regulations can keep the full potential of regulation from ever being realized”: Bardach and Kagan, supra, note 21, p 93.

35 Ayres, I and Braithwaite, J, Responsive Regulation: Transcending the Deregulation Debate (Oxford University Press 1992)Google Scholar. In line with this approach, see OECD, International Best Practice Principles: Improving Regulatory Enforcement and Inspections (OECD 2014).

36 Gunningham, N, Grabosky, P and Sinclair, D, Smart Regulation: Designing Environmental Policy (Oxford University Press 1998) 93 Google Scholar.

37 Hampton, P, Reducing Administrative Burdens: Effective Administration and Enforcement (HM Treasury 2005)Google Scholar; OECD, Recommendation on Regulatory Policy and Governance (OECD 2012)Google Scholar.

38 Black, J and Baldwin, R, “When Risk-Based Regulation Aims Low: Approaches and Challenges” (2012) 6(1) Regulation and Governance 2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Black, J and Baldwin, R, “When Risk-Based Regulation Aims Low: A Strategic Framework” (2012) 6(1) Regulation and Governance 131 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For instance, increased sanctions in case of “active tax fraud by manipulation of the balance sheet”, compared to cases in which taxpayers simply forget to report particular income components: Feld, LP and Frey, BS, “Tax Compliance as the Result of a Psychological Tax Contract: The Role of Incentives and Responsive Regulation” (2007) 29(1) Law & Policy 109 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

39 Baldwin, R and Black, J, “Really responsive regulation” (2008) 71 Modern Law Review 59 CrossRefGoogle Scholar et sqq; Baldwin, R and Black, J, “Really Responsive Risk-Based Regulation” (2010) 32(2) Law & Policy 181 Google Scholar et sqq.

40 For instance, it has been observed that people react more to the probability of being detected than to the severity of sanctions: Scholz, JT and Gray, WB, “OSHA enforcement and workplace injuries: A behavioral approach to risk assessment” (1990) 3(3) Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 283 at 284CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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44 “Tax authorities and insurance organizations [as well as all authorities wielding power] are supposed to reduce costly punishments, provide supportive procedures and helpful information; and pursue societal goals to assure a service climate. This would, in the long run, create trust toward them which fosters cooperative behavior”: Hofmann, E et al, “Authorities’ Coercive and Legitimate Power: The Impact on Cognitions Underlying Cooperation” (2017) 8(5) Frontiers in Psychology 13 CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed. Otherwise, trust and confidence erosion, misadministration and inefficiency create conditions for corruption: people are willing to pay in order to protect from inefficiencies: AD Molina, “Public Ethics and the Prevention of Corruption” in Cerrillo i Martínez and Ponce, supra, note 28, p 164.

45 See, for instance, OFGEM, Enforcement Guidelines (2017), points 3.29 and 3.30.

46 Eg Art 14-ter, Italian law no 287/1990 on competition; and Art 45, legislative decree no 93/2011, implementing European directives no 2009/72/CE, no 2009/73/CE and no 2008/92/CE on internal market for electricity.

47 Drawbacks to this approach include room for opportunistic use of flexibility and the skepticism of firms for fear of being sanctioned: Scholz, JT, “Cooperation, deterrence, and the ecology of regulatory enforcement” (1984) 18(2) Law and Society Review 183 and 185CrossRefGoogle Scholar et sqq; moreover, cooperative strategies require an increased administrative discretion which should be perceived as a symptom of corruption: Kagan and Scholz, supra, note 33, p 80. In this enforcement or regulation dilemma, “while both the regulated firm and the government can choose a cooperative approach to regulatory enforcement and compliance, which would be optimal for both sides, both might have important incentives to choose evasive and conflictual approaches instead”: Potoski, M and Prakash, A, “Voluntary programs, regulatory compliance and the regulation dilemma” in C Parker and V Lehmann Nielsen, Explaining Compliance. Business Responses to Regulation (Edward Elgar 2011) 247 Google Scholar.

48 “The cooperative strategies concentrate more enforcement activities on the small set of firms with a record on minimal compliance and on more serious, rather that technical, violations”: Scholz, JT , “ Cooperative regulatory enforcement and the politics of administrative effectiveness” (1991) 85(1) American Political Science Review 120 CrossRefGoogle Scholar. According the abovementioned Enforcement Guidelines, OFGEM “do not normally consider alternative action to be appropriate when addressing potential breaches of competition law. It is also unlikely to be sufficient in sectoral cases when potential breaches are serious or when we have significant concerns about a company’s conduct” (point 3.29).

49 Kagan and Scholz, supra, note 33, at 76. “Enforcement strategies that elicit feelings of resentment towards compliance and towards authority appear to lead to subsequent non-compliance among those affected. In contrast, reintegrative tactics that serve to reduce feelings of resentment appear to foster compliance with rules”: Murphy, K, “Enforcing Tax Compliance: To Punish or Persuade?” (2008) 38(1) Economic Analysis and Policy 130 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

Moreover, for instance, it has been demonstrated that voluntary compliance increases when public authorities publicise the purchase of data on potential tax evaders from international tax havens: D Bethmann and M Kvasnicka, “International Tax Evasion, State Purchases of Confidential Bank Data and Voluntary Disclosures” (2016) Institute of Economic Research, Korea University, Working Paper Series, 1603.

50 Field research results performed during the 1980s “have not only confirmed the findings of [early research using] laboratory and scenario studies on procedural justice, but in fact have usually shown stronger procedural justice effects”: Allan Lind, E and Tyler, TR, The Social Psychology of Procedural Justice (Springer 1988) 203 CrossRefGoogle Scholar et sqq.

51 Tyler, TR, “What is Procedural Justice? Criteria Used by Citizens to Assess the Fairness of Legal Procedures” (1988) 22(1) Law and Society Review 103 CrossRefGoogle Scholar et sqq. “The best-designed regulation is a poor tool for governing if it can only be enforced through constant surveillance and draconian punishment. It makes much more sense to seek to improve both the objective quality of a regulation and the impressions of fair treatment engendered by citizens’ personal experience with the regulation”: EA Lind and C Arndt, “Perceived Fairness and Regulatory Policy” (2016) 6 OECD Regulatory Policy Working Paper 10; this study offers numerous examples of research in social neuroscience leading to similar conclusions, summarised in “The Biology of Fairness” table, ibid, p 8.

52 “The absence of considerations of fairness and loyalty from standard economic theory is one of the most striking contrasts between this body of theory and other social sciences – and also between economic theory and lay intuition about human behavior”: Kahneman, D, Knetsh, JL, Thaler, RH, “Fairness and the Assumption of Economics” (1986) 59(4) The Journal of Business S285 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

53 Differently from consultation, which “may help the administration attain an accurate decision, (…) participation is based on a non-instrumental rationale, in the sense that it ensures that human dignity is adequately respected by public administrators when taking decisions that potentially affect the lives of individuals and groups. Following another line of reasoning, participation performs a democratic role, in the sense of allowing citizens to express their views within decision- making processes”: Della Cananea, supra, note 19, pp 110–111. See also Alemanno, A, “Stakeholder Engagement in Regulatory Policy” (2015) Regulatory Policy in Perspective: A Reader’s Companion to the OECD Regulatory Policy Outlook 2015 (OECD 2015)Google Scholar.

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57 Ayres and Braithwaite, supra, note 35, p 19.

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61 On crowding effects see Frey, supra, note 31.

62 Nolan, JM et al, “The constructive, destructive, and reconstructive power of social norms” (2007) 18 Psychol Science 429 Google Scholar et sqq.

63 Cialdini, RB, Influence. The Psychology of Persuasion (New York 1984)Google Scholar; Cialdini, RB, Kallgren, CA and Reno, RR, “A focus theory of normative conduct” (1991) 24 Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 201 Google Scholar et sqq.

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67 On self-deception and self-serving bias, see Shalvi, S et al, “Justified ethicality: Observing desired counterfactuals modifies ethical perceptions and behavior” (2011) 115(2) Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 181 Google Scholar et sqq; Chugh, D, Bazerman, MH and Banaji, MR, “Bounded ethicality as a psychological barrier to recognizing conflicts of interests” in DA More et al (eds), Conflicts of Interests: Challenges and Solutions in Business, Law, Medicine, and Public Policy (Cambridge University Press 2005) 74 CrossRefGoogle Scholar et sqq.

68 While some regulatees are indeed well motivated with a high capacity to comply (which would justify a less intensive intervention), others are motivated but with low capacity to comply; some regulatees are less motivated while characterised by a high capacity to comply and others are less motivated with less capacity to comply, a situation which would justify a more intensive intervention: Black and Baldwin, supra note 38 (both articles).

69 F Di Porto and N Rangone, “Proportionality of regulation: what role for cognitive sciences”, paper presented at the annual conference of the International Research Society for Public Management, Hong Kong 2016; see also F Di Porto, “Regolazione, principio di proporzionalità e scienze cognitive”, Federalismi.it (14 February 2018).

70 European Commission, Toolbox on Better Regulation (2017) p 85.

71 The performance of an ad hoc experiment is to be considered the preferred approach, while interventions drafted on the basis of a literature review alone do not avoid ineffectiveness: European Commission, Behavioural Insight Applied Policy (2016) p 17.

72 Therefore, if the regulatory problem is a low switching rate, those invited should not be only firms and associations of consumers, but also individual consumers. Inertia bias could also prevent stakeholders from participation in consultation (therefore, the consultation method should be selected accordingly, for instance inviting consumers to seminars, organising online forum, or providing simplified questionnaires).

73 Such as information overload (which could stop people from answering documents which are too long and complicated) or choice overload (which could paralyse people confronted by too many alternatives); overconfidence (which prevents people from neutrally evaluating their own ability or attitude), or confirmation (which leads people to select information which confirms their belief, while not paying attention to a different view).

74 For instance, while impact assessment (IA) based on cost-benefit analysis usually assumes people’s rationality, IA should include a risk analysis which takes into account end-users’ biases as a risk to be assessed in terms of probability and effects: Di Porto, F and Rangone, N, “Behavioural Sciences in Practice: Lessons for EU Policymakers” in A Alemanno and A-L Sibony (eds), Nudge and the Law: A European Perspective? (Hart 2015) 33 Google Scholar.

75 Di Porto and Rangone, supra, note 74, 30–31.

76 On weaknesses and strengths of traditional and cognitive-based regulatory strategies see Di Porto and Rangone, supra, note 74, 55–56.

77 F Di Porto, La regolazione degli obblighi informativi. Le sfide delle scienze cognitive e dei big data (Editoriale Scientifica 2017) 126 ff.

78 This distinction has been pointed out in 2015 by Di Porto and Rangone, supra, note 74, 36 ff., where a classification of types of nudging and empowerment is given, along with many examples). Cass R Sunstein introduced the similar notion of “educative nudges” in The Ethics of Influence: Government in the Age of Behavioral Science (Cambridge University Press 2016) first mentioned at p 16) and T Grüne-Yanoff and R Hertwig that of “boost”, in “Nudge versus boost: How coherent are policy and theory?” (2016) 26(1–2) Minds and Machines 149 et sqq.

79 C Codagnone et al, “Study on online gambling and adequate measures for the protection on consumers of gambling services”, Final Report for the European Commission (2014) pp 20–21 and 61–62.

80 McNeil, BJ et al, “On the elicitation of preferences for alternative therapies” (1982) 306 New England Journal of Medicine 1259 Google ScholarPubMed et sqq. How many alternative options are offered is also an issue: Tversky, A and Shafir, E, “Choice under conflict: the dynamics of deferred choice” (1992) 3(6) Psychological Science 358 Google Scholar; Schwartz, JAand Chapman, GB, “Are more options always better? The attraction effect in physicians’ decisions about medications” (1999) 19(3) Medical Decision Making 316 Google Scholar.

81 Cabinet Office, Applying Behavioural Insights to Reduce Fraud Error and Debt (The British Psychological Society 2012); see also M Hallsworth et al, “The Behavioralist as Tax Collector: Using Natural Field Experiments to Enhance Tax Compliance” (2014) no 20007 NBER Working Paper; Blumenthal, M, Christian, C and Slemrod, J, “Do Normative Appeals Affect Tax Compliance? Evidence from a Controlled Experiment in Minnesota” (2001) 54(1) National Tax Journal 125 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

82 For instance, the introduction of a given choice for architectures in canteens or supermarket in the well-known example described in the best seller by Thaler, RH and Sunstein, CR, Nudge. Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness (Yale University Press 2008) 67 Google Scholar.

83 LL Shu et al, “Signing at the Beginning Makes Ethics Salient and Decreases Dishonest Self-Reports in Comparison to Signing at the End” (2012) 109 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 15197 et sqq; US Social and Behavioral Sciences Team, Annual Report (2015) 15.

84 Mittone, L, “Dynamic Behaviour in Tax Evasion: an Experimental Approach” (2006) 35(5) The Journal of Socio-Economics 813 CrossRefGoogle Scholar et sqq.

85 Kastlunger, B et al, “Sequence of audits, tax compliance, and taxpaying strategies” (2009) 30(3) Journal of Economic Psychology 407 CrossRefGoogle Scholar et sqq.

86 The personal reference point is a psychological criterion or heuristic that guides decision-making processes by setting a standard against which to compare the choice: Kahneman, D and Tversky, A, “Prospect theory: an analysis of decision under risk” (1979) 47(2) Econometrica 263 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

87 “Recently created business should be (...) first given a chance to improve (…) so as to promote a culture of openness on their side. (…) Businesses which have a history of compliance should be gradually checked less often (their risk level being rated lower) – inspectors should also generally start with improvement notices or (in the case of lesser violations) verbal warnings, except in cases of major, imminent hazard” (OECD, Regulatory Enforcement and Inspections (2014) pp 28 and 34, inspired by the theory of responsive regulation developed by Ayres and Braithwaite).

88 Education, persuasion and dialogue are strategic in order to gain and maintain compliance of most taxpayers; “however, in the case of voluntary and repeated non-cooperation, severe economic and legal sanctions come into operation”: Kirchler, E and Hoelzl, E, “Modelling Taxpayers’ Behaviour as a Function of Interaction Between Tax Authorities and Taxpayers” in E Elfers, P Verboon and W Huisman (eds), Managing and Maintaining Compliance (Boom Legal Publisher 2006) 5–6 Google Scholar. At the same time, public authorities should react differently to “active tax fraud by manipulation of the balance sheet, and passive tax evasion when taxpayers forget to report particular income components”, according to the responsive regulation approach: Feld, LP and Frey, BS , “ Tax Compliance as the Result of a Psychological Tax Contract: The Role of Incentives and Responsive Regulation” (2007) 29(1) Law & Policy 109 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

89 In the tax sector, it has been demonstrated that more auditing can backfire (while compliance increases until a certain auditing level, it decreases beyond that level). The reduced compliance is due to distrust created in taxpayers and by the perception that the tax authority and its enforcement actions are excessive and unfair: Mendoza, JP, Wielhouwer, JL and Kirchler, E, “The backfiring effect of auditing on tax compliance” (2017) 62(11) Journal of Economic Psychology 284 CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

90 For instance, the “inspection holiday” puts a frequency cap on inspections for businesses with track records of accountability which are rewarded with fewer inspections focusing controls on “bad performer” firms: R de Boer, Regulatory Enforcement and Inspections. Dutch Approach, October 2012). A similar recommendation is formulated by the OECD, which suggests limiting “re-inspection of the same issue by different inspectorates in the same business within a given period (eg one year), except if problems have been identified in the first visit”: OECD, supra, note 6, 44.

91 Cialdini (1984), supra, note 63; Nolan et al, supra, note 62, 249 et sqq.

92 The Food Hygiene Rating Scheme, which has worked successfully in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, was launched in 2010, in New York City in 2010, in Los Angeles in 1998.

93 Data from 2013 shows that “the majority of these systems are mandatory (Denmark, Canada (Toronto), USA (New York, Los Angeles, San Diego, Ohio, Kentucky), Singapore, and New Zealand, with semi-voluntary systems existing in the UK (England, Wales, Northern Island, Scotland)”: NSW Food Authority, Progress of “Scores on Doors” (Food Hygiene Rating Scheme) in NSW (June 2013) CP069/1306.

94 More than 20 US states have shaming lists on the internet, eg New York, <www.tax.ny.gov/enforcement/warrants.htm> accessed 6 September 2018; Florida <floridarevenue.com/taxes/compliance/Pages/delinquent_taxpayer.aspx>, accessed 6 September 2018.

95 For instance, the UK HM Revenue and Customs published in 2013 a photo gallery of the Most Wanted tax fugitives: see <www.gov.uk/government/news/hmrcs-most-wanted-gallery-of-tax-fugitives-published-as-another-caught>, accessed 6 September 2018.

96 Establishing whether targeted transparency based on a positive framing is more effective than a negative one is something that should be established through ad hoc cognitive experiments.

97 It is important to underline that none of the abovementioned theories on compliance suggest a new model of human behaviour; alternatively to building an overarching model of man, Frey, supra, note 31, at 124 suggests leaving “the partial models including some specific psychological effects as they are, and regulates the task of choosing the appropriate model to the problem at hand”.

98 It is not the purpose of this paper to determine whether the preferred theories are those that build on the Simon’s notion of bounded rationality (eg Tversky and Kahneman, supra, note 9; Thaler and Sunstein, supra, note 82; and, among others, Bobb, R and Pildes, RH, “How behavioural economics trims its sails and why” (2014) 127 Harward Law Review 1612)Google Scholar, or the approaches which “presume rationality when evidence [of biased behavours] is lacking”: Schwartz, supra, note 3, at 1405–1406; in this line of thinking see also, among others, Frey, supra, note 31). However it seems to be unquestioned that cognitive findings lead to a richer and “more psychological model of human behaviour” (ibid, 118).