Published online by Cambridge University Press: 01 July 2020
Pharmaceutical science has provided humans with better and cheaper treatments. However, with improved access to medicines, the amount of pharmaceutical waste also grows. Pharmaceutical waste is regularly mismanaged by households, which is considerably and unnecessarily adding to the “pharmaceuticals in the environment” problem. Redesigning existing pharmaceutical takeback schemes and their regulation is a potential step towards a reduction of the problem. Interdisciplinary research between the fields of psychology, law, public health and medical science is necessary to tackle the issue and to design effective regulation steering responsible patient behaviours.
1 K Kümmerer, “Pharmaceuticals in the Environment” (2010) 35 Annual Review of Environment and Resources 57.
2 R Carson, Silent Spring (Boston, MA, Houghton Mifflin 1962).
3 DG Joakim Larsson et al, “Ethinyloestradiol – An Undesired Fish Contraceptive?” (1999) 45(2) Aquatic Toxicology 91; RE Green, “Diclofenac Poisoning as a Cause of Vulture Population Declines across the Indian Subcontinent” (2004) 41(5) Journal of Applied Ecology 793.
4 ES Williams and BW Brooks, “Human Health Risk Assessment for Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: Existing Practice, Uncertainty, and Future Directions” in BW Brooks and D Huggett (eds), Human Pharmaceuticals in the Environment (Berlin, Springer 2012) pp 167–224; European Commission, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council and the European Economic and Social Committee, European Union Strategic Approach to Pharmaceuticals in the Environment, COM/2019/128 final, 11 March 2019.
5 N Lubick, “Dumped Drugs Lead to Resistant Microbes” (2011) Nature News, 16 February 2011 <https://www.nature.com/articles/news.2011.46>.
6 CG Daughton, “Drugs and the Environment: Stewardship & Sustainability” (US Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/R-10/106, 2010).
7 OECD, Tackling Wasteful Spending on Health (Paris, OECD Publishing 2017) p 163.
8 AYC Tong, BM Peake and R Braund, “Disposal Practices for Unused Medications around the World” (2011) 37(1) Environment International 292.
9 J Aschemann-Witzel, “Waste Not, Want Not, Emit Less” (2016) 352(6284) Science 408.
10 Kümmerer, supra, note 1.
11 ABA Boxall et al, “Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in the Environment: What Are the Big Questions?” (2012) 120(9) Environmental Health Perspectives 1221.
12 Directive 2001/83/EC on the Community code relating to medicinal products for human use [2001] OJ L311/67, Art 127b.
13 BIO Intelligence Service (BIOIS), “Study on the Environmental Risks of Medicinal Products” (Final Report prepared for Executive Agency for Health and Consumers 2013) <https://ec.europa.eu/health/sites/health/files/files/environment/study_environment.pdf> (last accessed 26 March 2020).
14 P Trueman et al, Evaluation of the Scale, Causes and Costs of Waste Medicines (York, YHEC/School of Pharmacy 2010) <http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1350234/1/Evaluation_of_NHS_Medicines_Waste__web_publication_version.pdf> (last accessed 26 March 2020).
15 European Commission, supra, note 4.
16 L Scannell and R Gifford, “Personally Relevant Climate Change: The Role of Place Attachment and Local versus Global Message Framing in Engagement” (2013) 45(1) Environment and Behavior 60.
17 EM Markowitz and AF Shariff, “Climate Change and Moral Judgement” (2012) 2(4) Nature Climate Change 243.
18 AM Lokhorst et al, “Commitment and Behavior Change: A Meta-Analysis and Critical Review of Commitment-Making Strategies in Environmental Research” (2013) 45(1) Environment and Behavior 3.
19 C Vatovec, E Van Wagoner and C Evans, “Investigating Sources of Pharmaceutical Pollution: Survey of Over-the-Counter and Prescription Medication Purchasing, Use, and Disposal Practices among University Students” (2017) 198 Journal of Environmental Management 348.
20 E Weber, “Experience-Based and Description-Based Perceptions of Long-Term Risk: Why Global Warming does not Scare us (Yet)” (2006) 77(1) Climate Change 103.
21 S Lizin, M Van Dael and S Van Passelab, “Battery Pack Recycling: Behavior Change Interventions Derived from an Integrative Theory of Planned Behavior Study” (2017) 122 Resources, Conservation & Recycling 66.
22 J-DM Saphores, OA Ogunseitan and AA Shapiro, “Willingness to Engage in a Pro-Environmental Behavior: An Analysis of E-Waste Recycling Based on a National Survey of U.S. Households” (2012) 60 Resources, Conservation & Recycling 49.
23 Aschemann-Witzel, supra, note 9.