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Missing in Action: The Global Strategy to Reduce the Harmful Use of Alcohol and the WTO

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  09 November 2020

Paula O’BRIEN Open the ORCID record for Paula O’BRIEN [Opens in a new window]
Paula O’BRIEN*
Affiliation:
Senior Lecturer and Director of the Health Law and Ethics Network, Melbourne Law School, University of Melbourne, Australia; email: obrienpl@unimelb.edu.au.
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Abstract

This article addresses the question of how the World Health Organization (WHO) Global Strategy to Reduce the Harmful Use of Alcohol (Global Strategy) and its Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) have been used in the context of discussions about alcohol and tobacco measures, respectively, in the World Trade Organization (WTO) Committee on Technical Barriers to Trade. The article finds considerable differences not only in the extent to which the FCTC is used compared to the Global Strategy , but also in the ways in which the two global health instruments have been used in the WTO context. The article proffers three key reasons for these differences: the legal status of the instrument; the content of the instrument in terms of whether it contains guidance as to the use of detailed, evidence-based measures; and the role and legitimacy that the instrument accords to the relevant industry interests. The article considers how the insights from the research can inform the developments in global governance of alcohol that are underway in WHO policy. It also positions its findings in terms of the wider international law debates about hard law versus soft law, and whether different types of international regulatory instruments and the legal status of these instruments impact their effectiveness in supporting domestic public health measures.

Type
Special Issue on the Global Governance of Alcohol
Information
European Journal of Risk Regulation , Volume 12 , Special Issue 2: Symposium on COVID-19 Certificates and Special Issue on the Global Governance of Alcohol , June 2021 , pp. 477 - 498
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

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Footnotes

I am grateful to the anonymous referee for very helpful comments. I acknowledge the excellent research assistance of Aviva Kidd and Eliza Waters.

References

1 D Jernigan, Global Developments in Alcohol Policies: Progress in Implementation of the WHO Global Strategy to Reduce the Harmful Use of Alcohol Since 2010 (Background Paper Developed for the WHO Forum on Alcohol, Drugs and Addictive Behaviours, 26–28 June 2017) vi.

2 WHO, Executive Board, “Accelerating Action to Reduce the Harmful Use of Alcohol” (7 February 2020) EB146(14) (WHO Decision of the Executive Board).

3 WHO, Global Strategy to Reduce the Harmful Use of Alcohol (2010) (Global Strategy).

4 WHO, WHO Global Status Report on Alcohol and Health 2018 (2018) pp 63, 78, 85.

5 See, eg, S Casswell and T Thamarangsi, “Reducing Harm from Alcohol: Call to Action” (2009) 373 Lancet 2247.

6 WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (adopted 21 May 2003, entered into force 27 February 2005) 2302 UNTS 166 (FCTC).

7 See, eg, S Zhou and J Liberman, “The Global Tobacco Epidemic and the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control – The Contributions of the World Health Organization’s First Convention to Global Health Law and Governance” in GL Burci and B Toebes (eds), Research Handbook on Global Health Law (Cheltenham, Edward Elgar 2018) 340.

8 See B Baumberg and P Anderson, “Trade and Health: How World Trade Organization (WTO) Law Affects Alcohol and Public Health” (2008) 103 Addiction 1952, 1956.

9 See P O’Brien and AD Mitchell, “On the Bottle: Health Information, Alcohol Labelling and the WTO Technical Barriers to Trade Agreement” (2018) 18(1) QUT Law Review 124; T Voon and AD Mitchell, “International Trade Law” in T Voon, AD Mitchell and J Liberman (eds), Regulating Tobacco, Alcohol and Unhealthy Foods: The Legal Issues (Abingdon, Routledge 2014) 86, 93.

10 See B McGrady, “Appellate Body Report, United States – Clove Cigarettes for Non-Communicable Disease” (2012) 3 European Journal of Risk Regulation 251; T Voon, “Third Strike: The WTO Panel Reports Upholding Australia’s Tobacco Plain Packaging Scheme” (2019) 20 Journal of World Investment and Trade 146; T Voon, “Philip Morris v Uruguay: Implications for Public Health” (2017) 18 Journal of World Investment and Trade 320.

11 P O’Brien et al, “Commentary on ‘Communicating Measures about Drinking’: Using the ‘Big Legal Guns’ to Block Health Warning Labels” (2018) 53(3) Alcohol and Alcoholism 333.

12 McCabe Centre for Law and Cancer and the Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids, Report on WHO FCTC in Legislation and Litigation (2015) part I, pp 2–12 <https://www.who.int/fctc/cop/cop7/Documentation-Supplementary-information/en/> (last accessed 26 May 2020) (FCTC in Legislation and Litigation); SY Zhou, JD Liberman and E Ricafort, “The Impact of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in Defending Legal Challenges to Tobacco Control Measures” (2019) 28 Tobacco Control 113.

13 See L Gruszczynski and M Melillo, “The FCTC and Its Role in WTO Law: Some Remarks on the WTO Plain Packaging Report” (2018) 9 European Journal of Risk Regulation 564.

14 See, eg, WTO, US: Clove Cigarettes – Appellate Body Report (4 April 2012) WT/DS406/AB/R, para [235]; WTO, Australia: Certain Measures Concerning Trademarks, Geographical Indications and Other Plain Packaging Requirements Applicable to Tobacco Products and Packaging – Panel Report (28 June 2018) WT/DS435/R, WT/DS441/R, WT/DS458/R, WT/DS467/R, paras [7.250], [7.1309]–[7.1310].

15 See, eg, WTO, US: Clove Cigarettes – Panel Report (2 September 2011) WT/DS406/R, paras [7.230], [7.414]–[7.415]; WTO, Australia: Plain Packaging – Panel Report, supra, note 14, paras [7.416], [7.664]–[7.665]. An argument that the Panel had given “too much legal weight” to the FCTC (and its Guidelines) was rejected by the Appellate Body, which found that the Panel had used the FCTC (and its Guidelines) as “additional factual support” for its conclusion about the consistency of Australia’s measure with the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) Agreement: WTO, Australia: Certain Measures Concerning Trademarks, Geographical Indications and Other Plain Packaging Requirements Applicable to Tobacco Products and Packaging – Appellate Body Report (9 June 2020) WT/DS435/AB/R, WT/DS441/AB/R paras [6.700]–[6.707].

16 Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization (adopted 15 April 1994, entered into force 1 January 1995) 1867 UNTS 3, annex 1A (Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade) (TBT Agreement).

17 International Code of Marketing Breast-milk Substitutes, WHA Res 34.22, (adopted 21 May 1981).

18 WHO Global Code of Practice on the International Recruitment of Health Personnel, WHA Res 63.16, WHO Doc A63/8 (adopted 21 May 2010).

19 See GL Burci, “Global Health Law: Present and Future” in GL Burci and B Toebes, Research Handbook on Global Health Law (Cheltenham, Edward Elgar 2019) 486; S Sekalala, Soft Law and Global Health Problems: Lessons from Responses to HIV/AIDS, Malaria and Tuberculosis (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2017) ch 2.

20 AL Taylor and IS Dhillon, “An International Legal Strategy for Alcohol Control: Not a Framework Convention – At Least Not Yet” (2012) 108 Addiction 450; See also J Landon et al, “International Codes and Agreements to Restrict the Promotion of Harmful Products Can Hold Lessons for the Control of Alcohol Marketing” (2016) 112 Addiction 102; AD Mitchell and J Casben, “Trade Law and Alcohol Regulation: What Role for a Global Alcohol Marketing Code” (2016) 112 Addiction 109.

21 A Taylor, “Global Health Law: International Law and Public Health Policy” (2017) International Encyclopaedia of Public Health 268, 273.

22 R Room et al, “International Regulation of Alcohol” (2008) 337 BMJ 1248; Casswell and Thamarangsi, supra, note 5; R Room, “Healthy Is as Healthy Does: Where Will a Voluntary Code Get Us on International Alcohol Control?” (2013) 108 Addiction 456; S Casswell and J Rehm, “Reduction in Global Alcohol-Attributable Harm Unlikely after Setback at WHO Executive Board” (2020) 395 Lancet 1020, 1020–21. See also J Liberman, “Alternative Legal Strategies for Alcohol Control: Not a Framework Convention – At Least Not Right Now” (2013) 108 Addiction 456; D Zeigler, “On Delaying a Framework Convention on Alcohol Control: Regrettably Agreeing but Calling for Strategic Action to Accelerate the Process” (2013) 108 Addiction 456.

23 R Room, “World Health Organization and Alcohol Control” (1984) 79 British Journal of Addiction 85.

24 World Health Assembly (WHA), Res 58.26 (25 May 2005) 58th sess, WHO Doc WHA58/2005/REC/1.

25 WHA, Res 63.13 (21 May 2010) 63rd sess, WHO Doc WHA63/2010/REC/1.

26 TF Babor et al, “Who Is Responsible for the Public’s Health? The Role of the Alcohol Industry in the WHO Global Strategy to Reduce the Harmful Use of Alcohol” (2013) 108 Addiction 2045.

27 Global Strategy, supra, note 3, para [9].

28 ibid, para [8].

29 ibid, para [16].

30 ibid, pp 11–19.

31 FCTC, supra, note 6.

32 R Roemer, A Taylor and J Lariviere, “Origins of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control” (2005) 95(6) American Journal of Public Health 936, 936.

33 WHA, International Framework Convention for Tobacco Control (25 May 1996) WHA Res 49.17, 49th sess, 6th plen mtg.

34 Constitution of the World Health Organization (1946) Art 19.

35 FCTC, supra, note 6.

36 “WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control”, United Nations Treaty Collection (web page, 22 September 2019) <https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IX-4&chapter=9&clang=_en> (last accessed 27 February 2020).

37 ibid.

38 D Bodansky, “The Framework Convention/Protocol Approach”, WHO FCTC Technical Briefing Series (1999) WHO Doc WHO/NCD/TFI/99.1, p 15.

39 AL Taylor, “An International Regulatory Strategy for Global Tobacco Control” (1996) 21 Yale Journal of International Law 257, 294.

40 J Liberman, “The Power of the WHO FCTC: Understanding its Legal Status and Weight” in AD Mitchell and T Voon, The Global Tobacco Epidemic and the Law (Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, 2014) 48, p 52.

41 FCTC, supra, note 6, Art 3.

42 ibid, Art 6.

43 ibid, Art 11.

44 ibid, Art 13.

45 ibid, Art 15.

46 ibid, Art 23.

47 WHO, WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control Guidelines for Implementation of Articles 5.3, 8, 9, 10 and 11, 12, 13, 14 (2013).

48 Zhou and Liberman, supra, note 7, pp 355–56.

49 ibid, p 356.

50 WHO, “Partial Guidelines for Implementation of Articles 9 and 10”, supra, note 47, para [3.1.2.2(i)].

51 ibid, “Guidelines for Implementation of Article 11”, para [46]; ibid, “Guidelines for Implementation of Article 13”, paras [15]–[17].

52 Protocol to Eliminate Illicit Trade in Tobacco Products (adopted 12 November 2012, entered into force 1 October 2018) WHO Doc FCTCCOP5(1).

53 H Horn, PC Mavroidis and EN Wijkström, “In the Shadow of the DSU: Addressing Specific Trade Concerns in the WTO SPS and TBT Committees” (8 March 2013) Research Institute of Industrial Economics Working Paper No. 960, 1 <https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/81444/1/wp960.pdf> (last accessed 25 February 2020).

54 ibid, p 29.

55 See J Pauwelyn, “WTO Dispute Settlement Post 2019: What to Expect?” (2019) 22(3) Journal of International Economic Law 297.

56 WTO, “A Unique Contribution” (web page) <https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/disp1_e.htm> (last accessed 25 February 2020).

57 Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization (adopted 15 April 1994, entered into force 1 January 1995) 1867 UNTS 3 annex 2 (“Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes”) Art 16(4).

58 TBT Agreement, supra, note 16, Art 13.1.

59 WTO, “International Intergovernmental Organizations Granted Observer Status to WTO Bodies” (web page) <https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/igo_obs_e.htm#tbt> (last accessed 25 February 2020).

60 WTO, “TBT Official Documents” (web page) <https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/tbt_e/tbt_work_docs_e.htm> (last accessed 25 February 2020).

61 TBT Agreement, supra, note 16, Arts 2.9 and 2.10 in relation to the notification of a “technical regulation”.

62 Note that some notifications never become the subject of discussion in the TBT Committee, arguably because there is no concern about the measure or no desire to use the Committee process.

63 The measures covered by the TBT Agreement are “technical regulations”, “standards” or “conformity assessment procedures”. A government-mandated labelling standard for alcohol would be a “technical regulation”: ibid, TBT Agreement, supra, note 16, Annex 1 paras 1–3. See also P O’Brien et al, “Marginalising Health Information: Implications of the Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement for Alcohol Labelling” (2017) 41(1) Melbourne University Law Review 341, pp 368–69.

64 See, eg, Ireland’s new Public Health Act (Alcohol) Act 2018, which contains rules concerning alcohol labelling, marketing and pricing. The measures that are combined into a single STC may also have been the subject of one or multiple notifications: see, eg, WTO, STC – India, IMS ID 225 (18 March 2009).

65 WTO, STC – Ireland, IMS ID 516 (10 November 2016) (Ireland STC 516).

66 D Prévost, “Transparency Obligations under the TBT Agreement” in T Epps and MJ Trebilcock (eds), Research Handbook on the WTO and Technical Barriers to Trade (Cheltenham, Edward Elgar 2013) 128, p 158.

67 WTO TBT Committee, Minutes of the Meeting 23–24 June 2010, WTO Doc G/TBT/M/51 (1 October 2010) (WTO TBT Committee June 2010).

68 WTO TBT Committee, Minutes of the Meeting 20–21 June 2019, WTO Doc G/TBT/M/78 (10 October 2019) (WTO TBT Committee June 2019).

69 Searches were conducted on the terms “alcohol”, “wine”, “spirits”, “beer” and “whisky”.

70 The search terms were: “Global Strategy to Reduce the Harmful Use of Alcohol”, “Global Strategy”, “global”, “harmful”, “strategy”, “World Health Organization”, “WHO”, “Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases 2013–2020”, “Action Plan” and “NCD”. Our decision to search for the latter two terms was based on the fact that the WHO, Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases 2013–2020 (2013) endorsed the contents of the Global Strategy, such that members might refer to the NCD Action Plan interchangeably with the Global Strategy.

71 WTO TBT Committee, Minutes of the Meeting 22–23 March 2005, WTO Doc G/TBT/M/35 (24 May 2005).

72 WTO TBT Committee June 2019, supra, note 68.

73 Additional searches were conducted on the terms “cigar”, “cigarette”, “nicotine”, “tar”, “beedi” and “bidi”, but no additional measures were identified.

74 The search terms were: “Framework Convention on Tobacco Control”, “FCTC”, “framework”, “convention” and “treaty”.

75 Note that the numbers do not add to 21 because some STCs raised more than one type of public health alcohol intervention.

76 The labels covered alcohol content (see, eg, WTO, STC – Brazil, IMS ID 557 (20 June 2018)); low-risk drinking guidelines (WTO, STC – Vietnam, IMS ID 532 (29 March 2017)); and warnings and other health advice (see, eg, WTO, STC – Korea, IMS ID 518 (10 November 2016); WTO, STC – Korea, IMS 577 (6 March 2019); WTO, STC – Indonesia, IMS ID 561 (20 June 2018) (Indonesia STC 561); Ireland STC 516, supra, note 65; WTO, STC – Mexico, IMS ID 445 (5 November 2014)).

77 See WTO, STC – Ukraine, IMS ID 374 (6 March 2013) (Ukraine STC 374); WTO, STC – Thailand, IMS ID 427 (18 June 2014) (Thailand STC 427); Indonesia STC 561, supra, note 65. It is not clear that the TBT Agreement covers non-label marketing restrictions.

78 See, eg, Ireland STC 516, supra, note 65. It is not clear that the TBT Agreement covers pricing restrictions.

79 See, eg, WTO, STC – European Union, IMS ID 345 (13 June 2012) (EU STC 345).

80 See, eg, WTO, STC – India, IMS ID 298 (24 March 2011).

81 ibid.

82 See, eg, EU STC 345, supra, note 79.

83 See, eg, WTO, STC – Colombia, IMS ID 217 (18 March 2009).

84 See, eg, WTO, STC – Vietnam, IMS ID 267 (23 June 2010).

85 See, eg, WTO, STC – Russia, IMS ID 332 (20 March 2012).

86 WTO, “Notification” WTO Doc G/TBT/N/THA/332 (21 January 2010); WTO “Notification – Addendum” WTO Doc G/TBT/N/THA/332/Add.1 (30 March 2010) (Addendum). In December 2018, Thailand informed the TBT Committee that it is considering introducing a revised version of the graphic warning label scheme: see WTO, Statement by Thailand to the Committee on Technical Barriers to Trade on 14 and 15 December 2018, G/TBT/W/586 (14 December 2018) (Thailand TBT Statement).

87 See discussion of the proposal in P O’Brien, “Australia’s Double Standard on Thailand’s Alcohol Warning Labels” (2013) 32 Drug & Alcohol Review 5, p 6.

88 Global Strategy, supra, note 3, p 17, para [36(f)].

89 WTO TBT Committee June 2010, supra, note 67, para [245].

90 Global Strategy, supra, note 3, p 9, para [12(d)].

91 ibid, pp 7, 10.

92 ibid, p 7, para [6(d)].

93 WTO, Notification – Thailand, WTO Doc G/TBT/N/THA/437 (25 March 2014). The measure came into effect on 22 April 2015, although non-compliant products imported before 22 March 2015 were able to be sold until 18 October 2015.

94 The STC has been discussed in 14 consecutive TBT Committee meetings between 18–19 June 2014 and 14–15 November 2018: see Thailand STC 427, supra, note 77.

95 WTO, “Notification”, supra, note 86, 1 and 2.

96 Further detail about the law is found in “Brief of Technical Documents” (copy supplied by Thai TBT Enquiry Point on 26 April 2018) (on file with author).

97 See, eg, Thailand TBT Statement, supra, note 86.

98 Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization (adopted 15 April 1994, entered into force 1 January 1995) 1867 UNTS 3, annex 1C (Agreement on the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) (TRIPS Agreement).

99 WTO TBT Committee, Minutes of the Meeting 5–6 November 2014, WTO Doc G/TBT/M/64/Rev.1 (6 March 2015) para [2.218].

100 ibid, para [2.220].

101 ibid; see also para [2.219].

102 Global Strategy, supra, note 3, p 17, para [36(f)].

103 ibid, pp 15–16, para [31(a)].

104 Nepal did not notify its measure to the WTO. Details about the measure have been gleaned from the following: WTO TBT Committee, Minutes of the Meeting 14–15 June 2017, WTO Doc G/TBT/M/72 (TBT Committee June 2017) paras [3.46]–[3.47]; “Nepal: Government Adopted New Alcohol Law”, IOGT International (Online News Article, 22 February 2017) <https://iogt.org/news/2017/02/22/nepal-government-adopted-new-alcohol-law/> (last accessed 25 February 2020).

105 WTO TBT Committee June 2017, supra, note 104, para [3.47].

106 ibid, paras [3.46]–[3.47]. The EU and Canada were also vocal: see paras [3.48] and [3.49], respectively.

107 ibid, para [3.46].

108 Supra, note 3. See supra, Section II.

109 WHO, Regional Office for South-East Asia, “South-East Asia Regional Action Plan to Implement Global Strategy to Reduce Harmful use of Alcohol (2014–2025)” (12 September 2014, 6th sess) SEA/RC67/R4.

110 Note the numbers do not add up to 18 because some STCs raised more than one type of public health alcohol intervention.

111 WTO, STC – Brazil, IMS ID 288 (24 March 2011) (Brazil STC 288).

112 WTO, STC – European Union, IMS ID 377 (6 March 2013); WTO, STC – Moldova, IMS ID 437 (18 June 2014) (Moldova STC 437); WTO, STC – Canada, IMS ID 463 (18 March 2015); WTO, STC – European Union, IMS ID 513 (15 June 2016); ibid; WTO, STC – United States, IMS ID 257 (13 June 2012) (US STC 257); WTO, STC – Canada, IMS ID 249 (5 November 2009) (Canada STC 249).

113 WTO, STC – Australia, IMS ID 304 (15 June 2011) (Australia STC 304); WTO, STC – New Zealand, IMS ID 361 (27 November 2012); WTO, STC – Ireland, IMS ID 380 (17 June 2013); WTO, STC – United Kingdom, IMS ID 424 (19 March 2014); WTO, STC – France, IMS ID 441 (5 November 2014); WTO, STC – Norway, IMS ID 474 (17 June 2015); WTO, STC – Singapore, IMS ID 484 (4 November 2015); WTO, STC – Hungary, IMS ID 498 (9 March 2016) (Hungary STC 498); WTO, STC – Israel, IMS ID 573 (6 March 2019).

114 Brazil STC 288, supra, note 111; WTO, STC – Ukraine STC 374, supra, note 77; Moldova STC 437, supra, note 112; Hungary STC 498, supra, note 113.

115 Ukraine STC 374, supra, note 77.

116 WTO, STC – European Union, IMS ID 550 (8 November 2017).

117 Canada STC 249, supra, note 112; Brazil STC 288, supra, note 111; for a discussion of the Canadian measure, see A Mitchell and T Voon, “Regulating Tobacco Flavors: Implications of WTO Law” (2011) 29 Boston University International Law Journal 383, pp 390–92.

118 US STC 257, supra, note 112.

119 WTO TBT Committee, Minutes of the Meeting 4 October 1996, WTO Doc G/TBT/M/2, para [16] (Canada).

120 See WTO, US: Clove Cigarettes – Appellate Body Report, supra, note 15; see also T Voon et al, “United States – Measures Affecting the Production and Sale of Clove Cigarettes” (2012) 106 American Journal of International Law 824, pp 824–25.

121 See supra, note 113.

122 Australia STC 304, supra, note 113.

123 WTO, Australia: Tobacco Plain Packaging – Panel Report, supra, note 14; WTO, Australia: Tobacco Plain Packaging – Appellate Body Report, supra, note 15.

124 WTO TBT Committee, Minutes of the Meeting 4–6 November 2017, WTO Doc G/TBT/M/67 (3 February 2016) para [2.34]; WTO TBT Committee, Minutes of the Meeting 6–7 March 2019, WTO Doc G/TBT/M/77 (11 December 2019) para [3.5] (Canada).

125 WTO TBT Committee, Minutes of the Meeting 6–7 March 2013, WTO Doc G/TBT/M/59 (8 May 2013) para [2.77] (EU).

126 WTO TBT Committee, Minutes of the Meeting 24–25 March 2011, WTO Doc G/TBT/M/53 (26 May 2011) para [22] (Mexico).

127 WTO TBT Committee, Minutes of the Meeting 20–21 March 2012, WTO Doc G/TBT/M/56 (16 May 2012) para [130] (Brazil).

128 WTO TBT Committee, Minutes of the Meeting 17–20 June 2013, WTO Doc G/TBT/M/60 (23 September 2013) para [3.166] (EU).

129 WTO TBT Committee, Minutes of the Meeting 15–16 June 2011, WTO Doc G/TBT/M/54 (20 September 2011) para [29] (Australia); WTO TBT Committee, Minutes of the Meeting 5 and 8 May 2000, WTO Doc G/TBT/M/55 (16 June 2000) para [222] (Australia).

130 WTO TBT Committee May 2000, supra, note 129, para [192] (Norway).

131 WTO TBT Committee June 2011, supra, note 129, para [261].

132 See, eg, WTO, Australia: Plain Packaging – Panel Report, supra, note 14, paras [7.416], [7.664]–[7.665]; WTO, US: Clove Cigarettes – Panel Report (2 September 2011) WT/DS406/R, paras [7.230], [7.414]–[7.415].

133 See, eg, in the EU context, Case C-547/14 Philip Morris Brands SARL and ors, Imperial Tobacco Limited (intervening) and ors (intervening) v Secretary of State for Health ECLI:EU:C:2016:325, esp paras [3-10], [109-19], [175-79], [203-11]. See also FCTC in Legislation and Litigation, supra, note 12, part I, pp 2–12.

134 FCTC in Legislation and Litigation, supra, note 12, part II.

135 WTO TBT Committee, Minutes of the Meeting 10–11 November 2011, WTO Doc G/TBT/M/55 (9 February 2012) para [206] (Nicaragua). See also WTO TBT Committee March 2012, supra, note 127, para [164] (Honduras).

136 WTO TBT Committee March 2012, supra, note 127, para [127] (Turkey).

137 FCTC, supra, note 6, Art 5.3.

138 WHO, Discussion Paper: Implementation of the WHO Global Strategy to Reduce the Harmful Use of Alcohol Since Its Endorsement, and the Way Forward (21 September 2019) p 5.

139 See supra, notes 14 and 15.

140 O’Brien and Mitchell, supra, note 9, pp 150–55.

141 Burci, supra, note 19, 518–19; Roemer, Taylor and Lariviere, supra, note 32.

142 FCTC, supra, note 6, Art 11.1(b).

143 Zhou and Liberman, supra, note 7, pp 351–54, 356–58.

144 WHO, “Guidelines for Implementation of Article 11”, supra, note 47, para [12].

145 See KW Abbott and D Snidal, “Hard and Soft Law in International Governance” (2000) 54(3) International Organization 421, pp 421–44.

146 WHO, “Global Strategy”, supra, note 3, p 17, para [36(f)].

147 WHO, “SAFER: Preventing and Reducing Harms from Alcohol” <https://www.who.int/substance_abuse/safer/msb_safer_framework.pdf?ua=1> (last accessed 8 June 2020).

148 WHO, “Discussion Paper”, supra, note 138, p 4.

149 FCTC, supra, note 6, Art 3.

150 FCTC, supra, note 6, Art 5.3. See also GJ Fooks et al, “Controlling corporate influence in health policy making? An assessment of the implementation of Article 5.3 of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control” (2017) 13(12) Globalization and Health 1.

151 WHO, “Guidelines for Implementation of Article 5.3”, supra, note 47.

152 Casswell and Rehm, supra, note 22, pp 1020–21.

153 WHO, “Global Strategy”, supra, note 3, p 7, para [6(d)].

154 WHO, “Decision of the Executive Board”, supra, note 2.

155 ibid.